Viruses associated with immunodeficiency and enteropathy and methods using same

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to previously undescribed viruses that are associated with significant expansion of the virome, immunodeficiency, and enteropathy during lentiviral infection. The invention also provides methods to detect acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) or AIDS progression in a subject, methods to diagnose immunodeficiency or enteropathy in a subject, and methods to identify a therapeutic agent to treat the same.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made with government support under AI057160 andOD011170 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The governmenthas certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection of humans and pathogenicsimian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection of rhesus monkeys causesprogressive immunocompromise and acquired immune deficiency syndrome(AIDS). One hallmark that correlates with the rate of progression toAIDS is systemic immune activation. Systemic immune activation is, inturn, associated with damage to the intestinal epithelium (enteropathy)and translocation of as-yet-undefined immunostimulatorypathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS) or antigens into tissuesand the blood.

Despite the importance of intestinal barrier damage to AIDS progression,the mechanisms responsible for AIDS enteropathy are not understood. Onepossibility is that immunodeficiency leads to epithelial damage byintestinal viruses or other pathogens. The mammalian virome andbacterial microbiome is extremely complex and can contribute to immunestatus and disease in a range of settings. Thus far, a prior study thatutilized 16S rDNA sequencing, which was unable to detect viruses, foundno discernible differences in the diversity of bacteria associated withSIV infection (McKenna et al., PLoS Pathog. 4: e20 (2008)). However, itremained a possibility that the virome, a subset of the metagenome thatmay be defined as viruses that infect eukaryotic cells, contributes toepithelial damage during lentiviral infection.

It is therefore important to understand the contribution of the virometo lentiviral infection-associated phenotypes, such as enteropathy.There is an unmet need in the field for understanding the contributionof the virome upon lentiviral infection, as well as for the developmentof alternative methods of diagnosing and treating lentiviral infections(e.g., HIV).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to the discovery of previously undescribedviruses that are associated with significant expansion of the viromeduring lentiviral infection. In a first aspect, the invention featuresisolated polynucleotides including all or a portion of a nucleotidesequence that is at least 70% identical (e.g., at least 71%, 72%, 73%,or 74% identical), at least 75% identical (e.g., at least 76%, 77%, 78%,or 79% identical), at least 80% identical (e.g., at least 81%, 82%, 83%,or 84% identical), at least 85% identical (e.g., at least 86%, 87%, 88%,or 89% identical), at least 90% identical (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%,or 94% identical), at least 95% identical (e.g., at least 96%, 97%, 98%,or 99% identical), or 100% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1-107, ora reverse complement thereof. In some embodiments, the isolatedpolynucleotides include a label (e.g., a fluorophore, a hapten, anenzyme, or a radioisotope). The isolated polynucleotides of theinvention may include at least 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60,70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 2000,3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000 or more contiguous or non-contiguousnucleotides of a reference polynucleotide molecule. In some embodiments,the polynucleotides of the invention are between 10-100 nucleotides inlength, more particularly between 10-30 nucleotides in length (e.g., 10,11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,29, or 30 nucleotides in length), and can be at least 70% identical(e.g., at least 71%, 72%, 73%, or 74% identical), at least 75% identical(e.g., at least 76%, 77%, 78%, or 79% identical), at least 80% identical(e.g., at least 81%, 82%, 83%, or 84% identical), at least 85% identical(e.g., at least 86%, 87%, 88%, or 89% identical), at least 90% identical(e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, or 94% identical), at least 95% identical(e.g., at least 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical), or 100% identical toany one of SEQ ID NOs: 332-371.

In another aspect, the invention features isolated polypeptidesincluding all or a portion of an amino acid sequence that is at least70% identical (e.g., at least 71%, 72%, 73%, or 74% identical), at least75% identical (e.g., at least 76%, 77%, 78%, or 79% identical), at least80% identical (e.g., at least 81%, 82%, 83%, or 84% identical), at least85% identical (e.g., at least 86%, 87%, 88%, or 89% identical), at least90% identical (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, or 94% identical), at least95% identical (e.g., at least 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical), or 100%identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 108-331. In some embodiments, theisolated polypeptides include a label (e.g., a fluorophore, a hapten, anenzyme, or a radioisotope). The isolated polypeptides of the inventionmay include at least 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,19, 20, 25, 50, 75, 90, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275, 300, or350 or more contiguous or non-contiguous amino acids of a referencepolypeptide molecule.

In another aspect, the invention features isolated antibodies, orfragments thereof, that are specific for one or more of the isolatedpolynucleotides or polypeptides of the invention. In some embodiments,the isolated antibodies, or fragments thereof, may be chimeric, human,humanized, or synthetic. In other embodiments, the isolated antibodies,or fragments thereof, may further include a label.

In another aspect, the invention features recombinant expression systemsfor the production of a protein, or fragment thereof, that is encoded bythe polynucleotides of the invention. In some embodiments, therecombinant expression system is an in vitro or an in vivo expressionsystem. In other embodiments, the recombinant expression system furtherincludes a cell (e.g., a bacterial, plant, or mammalian cell). In yetother embodiments, the mammalian cell is a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)cell.

In another aspect, the invention features recombinant viruses includingone or more of the isolated polynucleotides and/or one or more of theisolated polypeptides of the invention. In one preferred embodiment, theviruses further include a genome including a heterologous nucleic acidencoding an antigenic gene product of interest or fragment thereof, orthe viruses further include a capsid including a heterologous antigenicgene product of interest or fragment thereof. In another preferredembodiment, the antigenic gene product, or fragment thereof, includes abacterial, viral, parasitic, or fungal gene product, or fragmentthereof. In some embodiments, all or a portion of the recombinant virusis from the viral family Adenoviridae, Parvoviridae, Calciviridae,Papillomaviridae, Picobirnaviridae, Picornaviridae, or Polyomaviridae.In preferred embodiments, the viral family is Adenoviridae orParvoviridae.

In another aspect, the invention features methods of detecting acquiredimmune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and/or AIDS progression in a subjectincluding detecting one or more target nucleotide sequences from asample of the subject that specifically hybridize under stringentconditions to one or more of the polynucleotides of the invention, wherethe detection of an increase in the level of the one or more targetnucleotide sequences in the subject, relative to the level of one ormore target nucleotide sequences from a control subject, indicates AIDSand/or AIDS progression in the subject.

In another aspect, the invention features methods of diagnosing, orproviding a prognostic indicator of, immunodeficiency and/or enteropathyin a subject including detecting one or more target nucleotide sequencesfrom a sample of the subject that specifically hybridize under stringentconditions to one or more of the polynucleotides of the invention, wherethe detection of an increase in the level of the one or more targetnucleotide sequences in the subject, relative to the level of one ormore target nucleotide sequences from a control subject, indicates thepresence of, or the propensity to develop, immunodeficiency and/orenteropathy in the subject. In some embodiments, the immunodeficiencyand/or enteropathy is associated with a lentivirus (e.g., humanimmunodeficiency virus (HIV) or simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)).

In yet another aspect, the invention features methods of identifying atherapeutic agent for use in treating immunodeficiency and/orenteropathy in a subject including detecting one or more targetnucleotide sequences that specifically hybridize under stringentconditions to one or more of the polynucleotides of the invention from asample of a subject administered a therapeutically effective amount of acandidate agent, where the detection of a decrease in the level of theone or more target nucleotide sequences in the subject, relative to thelevel of one or more target nucleotide sequences from the subject priorto administration or a control subject, identifies the candidate agentas the therapeutic agent. In some embodiments, the candidate agent isadministered to the subject in a therapeutically effective amount. Inother embodiments, the immunodeficiency and/or enteropathy is associatedwith a lentivirus (e.g., human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or simianimmunodeficiency virus (SIV)).

In other aspects, the invention features nucleic acid-based vaccinesincluding a vector including the polynucleotides of the invention aswell as isolated recombinant cells including the polynucleotides of theinvention (e.g., all or a portion of a polynucleotide having at least70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or 100% sequence identity to any one ormore of SEQ ID NOs: 1-107 and/or 332-371, or a reverse complementthereof).

In other aspects, the invention features polypeptide-based vaccinesincluding the polypeptides of the invention (e.g., all or a portion of apolypeptide having at least 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99%, or 100%sequence identity to any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 108-331).

In any of the methods described herein, the detecting of one or moretarget nucleotide sequences may include synthesizing cDNA from RNA ofthe sample.

In any of the embodiments described herein, the one or more targetnucleotide sequences are detected by a PCR assay (e.g., a real time PCR(RT-PCR) assay and/or a nested PCR assay).

In any of the embodiments described herein, the sample is a tissue,organ, liquid, or feces sample. In preferred embodiments, the sample isfrom a mammal, preferably a primate, such as a human.

DEFINITIONS

The term “antibody” is used in the broadest sense and includesmonoclonal antibodies (e.g., full-length or intact monoclonalantibodies), polyclonal antibodies, multivalent antibodies,multispecific antibodies (e.g., bispecific antibodies so long as theyexhibit the desired biological activity) and may also include certainantibody fragments (as described in greater detail herein). An antibodytypically comprises both “light chains” and “heavy chains.” The lightchains of antibodies (immunoglobulins) from any vertebrate species canbe assigned to one of two clearly distinct types, called kappa (κ) andlambda (λ), based on the amino acid sequences of their constant domains.Depending on the amino acid sequence of the constant domain of theirheavy chains, immunoglobulins can be assigned to different classes.There are five major classes of immunoglobulins: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, andIgM, and several of these can be further divided into subclasses(isotypes), e.g., IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgA1, and IgA2. The heavychain constant domains that correspond to the different classes ofimmunoglobulins are called α, δ, ε, γ, and μ, respectively. The subunitstructures and three-dimensional configurations of different classes ofimmunoglobulins are well known.

“Antibody fragments” of “fragments” comprise only a portion of an intactantibody, wherein the portion preferably retains at least one,preferably most or all, of the functions normally associated with thatportion when present in an intact antibody. Examples of antibodyfragments include Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)₂, and Fv fragments (e.g.,single-chain variable fragments (scFv)); diabodies; linear antibodies;single-chain antibody molecules; and multispecific antibodies formedfrom antibody fragments. Papain digestion of antibodies produces twoidentical antigen-binding fragments, called “Fab” fragments, each with asingle antigen-binding site, and a residual “Fc” fragment, whose namereflects its ability to crystallize readily. Pepsin treatment yields anF(ab′)₂ fragment that has two antigen-combining sites and is stillcapable of cross-linking antigen. In one embodiment, an antibodyfragment comprises an antigen binding site of the intact antibody andthus retains the ability to bind antigen. In another embodiment, anantibody fragment, for example one that comprises the Fc region, retainsat least one of the biological functions normally associated with the Fcregion when present in an intact antibody, such as FcRn binding,antibody half life modulation, ADCC function, ADCVI function, andcomplement binding. In one embodiment, an antibody fragment is amonovalent antibody that has an in vivo half life substantially similarto an intact antibody. For example, such an antibody fragment maycomprise on antigen binding arm linked to an Fc sequence capable ofconferring in vivo stability to the fragment.

By “capsid” is meant a protein shell or coat of a virus which oftenadopts a helical or icosahedral structure. The capsid of an adenovirus,for example, adopts an icosahedral structure and consists of three majorstructural proteins: hexon, penton, and fiber proteins. The capsidencloses the genetic material of the virus.

Throughout this specification and claims, the word “comprise,” orvariations such as “comprises” or “comprising,” will be understood toimply the inclusion of a stated integer or group of integers but not theexclusion of any other integer or group of integers.

By “enteropathy” is meant damage to the intestinal epithelium, commonlyassociated with lentiviral infection (e.g., human immunodeficiency virus(HIV) infection in humans), which can result in intestinal leakageassociated with increased serum LPS binding protein (LBP) levels andsystemic immune activation. Enteritis, inflammation of the intestinalepithelium, is a type of enteropathy.

By “gene product” is meant to include mRNAs or other nucleic acids(e.g., microRNAs) transcribed from a gene as well as polypeptidestranslated from those mRNAs.

By “heterologous nucleic acid molecule” is meant any exogenous nucleicacid molecule that can be incorporated into, for example, a virus orexpression system of the invention for subsequent expression of a geneproduct of interest or fragment thereof encoded by the heterologousnucleic acid molecule. In a preferred embodiment, the heterologousnucleic acid molecule encodes an antigenic gene that is of bacterial,viral, parasitic, or fungal origin (e.g., a nucleic acid moleculeencoding the HIV Gag, Pol, Env, Nef, Tat, Rev, Vif, Vpr, or Vpu geneproduct, or fragment thereof). The heterologous nucleic acid molecule isone that is not normally associated with the other nucleic acidmolecules found in virus or expression system.

By “immunodeficiency” is meant a compromised immune system of a subjectrelative to that of a control, whereby the compromise of the immunesystem can be measured by a decrease in the levels of CD4 T cells, Bcells, plasma cells, antibodies, or neutrophil granulocytes of thesubject relative to that of the control.

By “isolated” is meant separated, recovered, or purified from acomponent of its natural environment.

A “label” refers to a molecular moiety or compound that is detected orleads to a detectable signal. A label may be joined directly orindirectly to a polynucleotide, polypeptide, or a probe thereof. Directlabeling can occur through bonds or interactions that link the label tothe probe, including covalent bonds or non-covalent interactions, e.g.hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic and ionic interactions, or formation ofchelates or coordination complexes. Indirect labeling can occur throughuse of a bridging moiety or linker (e.g., antibody or additionaloligomer), which is either directly or indirectly labeled, and which mayamplify the detectable signal. Labels include any detectable moiety,such as a fluorophore, hapten, enzyme, radioisotope, enzyme substrate,reactive group, chromophore (e.g., a dye, a particle, or a bead thatimparts detectable color), or luminescent compound (e.g.,bioluminescent, phosphorescent, or chemiluminescent labels). A“radioisotope” can be any radioisotope known to skilled artisans, suchas, ³H, ¹⁴C, ³²P, ³³P, ³⁵S, or ¹²⁵I. A “fluorophore” can be anyfluorophore known to skilled artisan, for example, a fluorescein, arhodamine, a coumarin, an indocyanine, or a green fluorescent protein(GFP) or variant thereof (e.g., a red fluorescent protein (RFP)). Anenzyme can be any enzyme for which a suitable substrate is available,such as, for example, alkaline phosphatase, a horseradish peroxidase, ora chloramphenicol acetyltransferase. A suitable substrate is a substratethat, when contacted by an enzyme, produces a product that is detectableby methods known to skilled artisans. For example, the substrate can bea chromogenic substrate (e.g., p-dinitrophenyl phosphate as a substratefor alkaline phosphatase or diaminobenzidine as a substrate forhorseradish peroxidase), a fluorogenic substrate (e.g.,5-amino-2,3-dihydrophthalazine-1,4-dione (luminol) for horseradishperoxidase or disodium3-(4-methoxyspiro{1,2-dioxetane-3,2′-(5′chloro)tricycle[3.3.1.13,7]decan}-4-yl)phenylphosphate for alkaline phosphatase). A “hapten” can be any hapten forwhich a probe is available, such as biotin, streptavidin, ordigoxigenin.

By “portion” is meant a part of a whole. A portion may comprise at least10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or 95% of the entire lengthof an polynucleotide or polypeptide sequence region. Forpolynucleotides, for example, a portion may include at least 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600,700, 800, 900, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000 or morecontiguous nucleotides of a reference polynucleotide molecule. Forpolypeptides, for example, a portion may include at least 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 50, 75, 90, 100, 125,150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275, 300, or 350 or more contiguous amino acidsof a reference polypeptide molecule.

By “recombinant,” with respect to an expression system or virus, ismeant an expression system or virus that has been manipulated in vitro.For example, an expression system or virus which includes a heterologousnucleic acid sequence, such as a sequence encoding an antigenic geneproduct, introduced using recombinant nucleic acid techniques.

By “sample” is meant any biological substance obtained from a subject,such as a biological feces (stool), fluid, tissue, or organ sample. Abiological fluid sample can be, without limitation, a blood sample, aplasma sample, a serum sample, a cerebrospinal fluid sample, a urinesample, or a saliva sample.

By “sequence identity” or “sequence similarity” is meant that theidentity or similarity between two or more amino acid sequences, or twoor more nucleotide sequences, is expressed in terms of the identity orsimilarity between the sequences. Sequence identity can be measured interms of “percentage (%) identity,” wherein the higher the percentage,the more identity shared between the sequences. Sequence similarity canbe measured in terms of percentage similarity (which takes into accountconservative amino acid substitutions); the higher the percentage, themore similarity shared between the sequences. Homologs or orthologs ofnucleic acid or amino acid sequences possess a relatively high degree ofsequence identity similarity when aligned using standard methods.Sequence identity may be measured using sequence analysis software onthe default setting (e.g., Sequence Analysis Software Package of theGenetics Computer Group, University of Wisconsin Biotechnology Center,1710 University Avenue, Madison, Wis. 53705). Such software may matchsimilar sequences by assigning degrees of homology to varioussubstitutions, deletions, and other modifications.

By “specifically hybridizes” is meant hybridization, under stringenthybridization conditions, of a first polynucleotide (e.g., a probe orprimer) to a second polynucleotide (e.g., a target sequence) to adetectably greater degree than hybridization of the first polynucleotideto non-target polynucleotide sequences and/or to the substantialexclusion of non-target polynucleotide sequences. Selectivelyhybridizing sequences have at least 70% sequence identity, at least 80%sequence identity, at least 90% sequence identity, or 100% sequenceidentity (e.g., complementary) with each other.

The term “stringent conditions” refers to conditions under which a probewill hybridize to its target sequence to a detectably greater degreethan to other sequences. Stringent conditions are sequence-dependent andwill be different in different circumstances. Longer sequences hybridizespecifically at higher temperatures. Generally, stringent conditions areselected to be about 5° C. lower than the thermal melting point (T_(m))for the specific sequence at a defined ionic strength and pH. The T_(m)is the temperature (under defined ionic strength and pH) at which 50% ofa complementary target sequence hybridizes to a perfectly matched probe.Typically, stringent conditions will be those in which the saltconcentration is less than about 1.0 M Na ion, typically about 0.01 to1.0 M Na ion concentration (or other salts) at pH 7.0 to 8.3 and thetemperature is at least about 30° C. for short probes (e.g., 10 to 50nucleotides) and at least about 60° C. for long probes (e.g., greaterthan 50 nucleotides). Stringent conditions may also be achieved with theaddition of destabilizing agents, such as formamide.

A “subject” is a vertebrate, such as a mammal (e.g., primates andhumans). Mammals also include, but are not limited to, farm animals(such as cows), sport animals, pets (such as cats, dogs, and horses),mice, and rats.

By “therapeutically effective amount” is meant an amount of atherapeutic agent that alone, or together with one or more additional(optional) therapeutic agents, produces beneficial or desired resultsupon administration to a mammal. The therapeutically effective amountdepends upon the context in which the therapeutic agent is applied. Forexample, in the context of administering a composition including atherapeutic agent, the therapeutically effective amount of thecomposition is an amount sufficient to achieve a reduction in the levelof an infectious virus, such as HIV or SIV (e.g., as measured by astabilization or an increase in CD4 T cell count relative to a control),and/or a reduction in the level of enteropathy (e.g., as measured by adecrease in serum LBP levels relative to a control) as compared to aresponse obtained without administration of the composition, and/or toprevent the propagation of an infectious virus (e.g., HIV) in a subject(e.g., a human) having an increased risk of viral infection. Ideally, atherapeutically effective amount provides a therapeutic effect withoutcausing a substantial cytotoxic effect in the subject. In general, atherapeutically effective amount of a composition administered to asubject (e.g., a human subject) will vary depending upon a number offactors associated with that subject, for example the overall health ofthe subject, the condition to be treated, or the severity of thecondition. A therapeutically effective amount of a composition can bedetermined by varying the dosage of the product and measuring theresulting therapeutic response.

As used herein, and as well understood in the art, “treatment” is anapproach for obtaining beneficial or desired results, such as clinicalresults. Beneficial or desired results can include, but are not limitedto, alleviation or amelioration of one or more symptoms or conditions;diminishment of extent of disease, disorder, or condition; stabilization(i.e., not worsening) of a state of disease, disorder, or condition;prevention of spread of disease, disorder, or condition; delay orslowing the progress of the disease, disorder, or condition;amelioration or palliation of the disease, disorder, or condition; andremission (whether partial or total), whether detectable orundetectable. “Palliating” a disease, disorder, or condition means thatthe extent and/or undesirable clinical manifestations of the disease,disorder, or condition are lessened and/or time course of theprogression is slowed or lengthened, as compared to the extent or timecourse in the absence of treatment.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thefollowing Detailed Description, the drawings, and the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a graph showing the taxonomic distribution of sequencesidentified in feces of pathogenic SIV-infected (SIV+) and uninfected(SIV−) control rhesus monkeys housed at the NEPRC 24 weeks afterintrarectal infection with SIVmac251. The flanking doughnut chartdisplays the averaged values per kingdom for SIV+ or SIV− monkeys.

FIG. 1B is a graph showing the taxonomic distribution of sequencesidentified in feces of pathogenic SIV-infected (SIV+) and uninfected(SIV−) control rhesus monkeys described in FIG. 1A housed at the NEPRC64 weeks after SIV infection. * indicates euthanized for progressiveAIDS 24 to 64 weeks after SIV infection. The flanking doughnut chartdisplays the averaged values per kingdom for SIV+ or SIV− monkeys.

FIG. 1C is a graph showing the taxonomic distribution of sequencesidentified in feces of pathogenic SIV-infected (SIV+) and uninfected(SIV−) control rhesus monkeys housed at the TNPRC 23-64 weeks afterintravaginal infection with SIVmac251. The flanking doughnut chartdisplays the averaged values per kingdom for SIV+ or SIV− monkeys.

FIG. 1D is a graph showing taxonomic distribution of sequencesidentified in feces of non-pathogenic SIV-infected (SIV+) and control(SIV−) vervet African green monkeys housed at the NIH at least threeyears after intravenous infection with SIVagm90, SIVagmVer1, or afternatural infection in the wild. The flanking doughnut chart displays theaveraged values per kingdom for SIV+ or SIV− monkeys.

FIG. 1E is a graph showing the taxonomic distribution of sequencesidentified in feces of non-pathogenic SIV-infected (SIV+) and control(SIV−) sabaeus African green monkeys housed at the NEPRC and infectedintravenously with SIVagmMJ8, SIVagm9315BR, or uninfected controls. Theflanking doughnut chart displays the averaged values per kingdom forSIV+ or SIV− monkeys.

FIG. 2A is a graph showing the quantitation of sequences from differentkingdoms of life identified in the feces of pathogenic SIV-infected andcontrol rhesus monkeys housed at the NEPRC 24 weeks after SIV infection.The nature of SIV infection is as defined in the FIG. 1A.

FIG. 2B is a graph showing the quantitation of sequences from differentkingdoms of life identified in the feces of pathogenic SIV-infected andcontrol rhesus monkeys housed at the NEPRC 64 weeks after SIV infection.The nature of SIV infection is as defined in the FIG. 1B.

FIG. 2C is a graph showing the quantitation of sequences from differentkingdoms of life identified in the feces of pathogenic SIV-infected andcontrol rhesus monkeys housed at the TNPRC. The nature of SIV infectionis as defined in the FIG. 1C.

FIG. 2D is a graph showing the quantitation of sequences from differentkingdoms of life identified in the feces of nonpathogenic SIV-infectedand control vervet African green monkeys housed at the NIH. The natureof SIV infection is as defined in the FIG. 1D.

FIG. 2E is a graph showing the quantitation of sequences from differentkingdoms of life identified in the feces of nonpathogenic SIV-infectedand control sabaeus African green monkeys housed at the NEPRC. Thenature of SIV infection is as defined in the FIG. 1E.

FIG. 3A is a graph showing SIV RNA levels in animals in the NEPRCcohort.

FIG. 3B is a graph showing CD4 T cell (CD4) numbers in animals in theNEPRC cohort.

FIG. 3C is a graph showing serum LPS binding protein (LBP) levels inanimals in the NEPRC cohort.

FIG. 4A is a chart showing the distribution of virus sequences presentin the feces of pathogenic SIV-infected and control rhesus monkeyshoused at the NEPRC 24 weeks after SIV infection. “Mammalian” indicatesthat sequences were most closely related to viruses that infect mammals.Viruses infecting non-mammals are referred to as “other.” “Unclassifiedviruses” includes all unclassified viruses, e.g., Chronic bee paralysisvirus, Chimpanzee stool associated circular ssDNA virus, Circovirus-likegenome RW-C, Circovirus-like genome CB-A, and Rodent stool-associatedcircular genome virus.

FIG. 4B is a chart showing the distribution of virus sequences presentin the feces of pathogenic SIV-infected and control rhesus monkeyshoused at the NEPRC 64 weeks after SIV infection. * indicates euthanizedfor progressive AIDS between 24 and 64 weeks after SIV infection. Virusclassifications as described in FIG. 4A.

FIG. 4C is a chart showing the distribution of virus sequences presentin the feces of pathogenic SIV-infected and control rhesus monkeyshoused at the TNPRC. Virus classifications as described in FIG. 4A.

FIG. 4D is a chart showing the distribution of virus sequences presentin the feces of non-pathogenic SIV-infected and control vervet Africangreen monkeys housed at the NIH. Virus classifications as described inFIG. 4A.

FIG. 4E is a chart showing the distribution of virus sequences presentin the feces of non-pathogenic SIV-infected and control sabaeus Africangreen monkeys housed at the NEPRC. (C) Viruses present in feces ofpathogenic SIV-infected and control rhesus monkeys housed at the TNPRC.Virus classifications as described in FIG. 4A.

FIG. 4F is a graph showing the average number of picornavirus sequences,after normalization for analysis using MEGAN, detected in the indicatedcohorts of SIV-infected (+) and control (−) rhesus monkeys.

FIG. 5A are schematic diagrams showing the assembled viral contigs (ingray) from newly identified WUHARV Caliciviruses 1 (animal 39), 2 (froman animal not included in the cohort), and 3 (animal 39) compared toTulane calicivirus (black bar). Calicivirus 1 contig 1 derived from 879sequences, length=6578 bp; Calicivirus 2 contig 1 derived from 16sequences, length=812 bp; Calicivirus 2 contig 2 assembled from 120sequences, length=5083 bp; Calicivirus 3 contig 1 assembled from 14sequences, length=750 bp; Calicivirus 3 contig 2 assembled from 67sequences, length=2111 bp; Calicivirus 3 contig 3 assembled from 41sequences, length=832 bp; Calicivirus 3 contig 4 assembled from 38sequences, length=1273 bp. Animal numbers refer to the monkeys in FIG.1A. *Indicates the percentage nucleotide identity over the designatedlength of the best aligned homologous region (indicated by double headedarrow) compared to the most closely related genome indicated in theblack bar.

FIG. 5B are schematic diagrams showing the assembled viral contigs (ingray) from newly identified WUHARV Parvovirus 1 (animal 39) and 2(animal 35) compared with the sequence of canine or mouse parvovirus 4a(black bars), as indicated. Parvovirus 1 contig 1 assembled from 375sequences, length=4905 bp; Parvovirus 2 contig 1 representing 1sequence, length=470 bp; Parvovirus 2 contig 2 assembled from 6sequences, length=690 bp. Animal numbers refer to the monkeys in FIG.1A. *Indicates the percentage nucleotide identity over the designatedlength of the best aligned homologous region (indicated by double headedarrow) compared to the most closely related genome indicated in theblack bar.

FIG. 5C are schematic diagrams showing the assembled viral contigs (ingray) from newly identified WUHARV Enterovirus 1 (animal 41), 2 (animal39) and 3 (animal 33) compared with the sequence of Simian enterovirusSV19 (black bar). Enterovirus 1 assembled from 1084 sequences,length=7273 bp; Enterovirus 2 assembled from 758 sequences, length=7128bp; Enterovirus 3 assembled from 406 sequences, length=6962 bp. Animalnumbers refer to the monkeys in FIG. 1A. *Indicates the percentagenucleotide identity over the designated length of the best alignedhomologous region (indicated by double headed arrow) compared to themost closely related genome indicated in the black bar.

FIG. 5D are schematic diagrams showing the assembled viral contigs (ingray) from newly identified WUHARV Sapelovirus 1 (animal 42), 2 (animal41) and 3 (animal 37) compared with the sequence of Simian Sapelovirus 1strain 2383 (black bar). Sapelovirus 1 assembled from 3081 sequences,length=8059 bp; Sapelovirus 2 assembled from 2711 sequences, length=8025bp; Sapelovirus 3 assembled from 380 sequences, length=6872 bp. Animalnumbers refer to the monkeys in FIG. 1A. *Indicates the percentagenucleotide identity over the designated length of the best alignedhomologous region (indicated by double headed arrow) compared to themost closely related genome indicated in the black bar.

FIG. 5E is a chart showing the presence of viral sequences as detectedby PCR using virus-specific primers (Table 1). Numbers below the chartrefer to the animals in FIG. 1A. “a” refers to lack of detection of avirus likely due to the presence of a divergent virus; “b” refers tolack of detection of a virus for unknown reasons; and “c” refers todetection of virus sequences in serum samples taken at the time ofeuthanasia for AIDS.

FIG. 6A are schematic diagrams showing the assembled viral contigs (ingray) from newly identified WUHARV Adenovirus 1 (animal #40) compared tothe known virus Simian adenovirus 1 strain ATCC VR-195 (black bar).These contigs were assembled from 1308 sequences. Animal numbers referto the monkeys in FIG. 1A. *Indicates the percentage nucleotide identityover the designated length of the best aligned homologous region(indicated by double headed arrow) compared to the most closely relatedgenome indicated in the black bar.

FIG. 6B is an agarose gel showing PCR confirmation of WUHARV Adenovirus1 during amplification, plaque purification, and cesium chloridegradient purification. The three PCR products for each sample (lanes2-19) were derived from primers 4302c3f and 4302c3r, 4302c18f and4302c18r, and 4302c1f and 4302c1 r, respectively (Table 1). Lane 1 is amolecular weight ladder.

FIG. 6C are images showing representative histopathology (top panels)and adenovirus immunohistochemistry (IHC) (bottom panels) for animal#23. Adenovirus infection was associated with villous atrophy and fusion(i) and sloughed epithelial cells that contained intranuclear adenoviralinclusions (arrows in (ii)). Adenovirus antigen could be localized tovillous tip epithelium by immunohistochemistry (brown color of DABchromagen, Mayer's counterstain; (iii) and (iv)). Scale bars in (i) and(iii) are 0.5 mm. Scale bars in (ii) and (iv) are 200 μm.

FIG. 6D are images showing representative histopathology (top panels)and adenovirus immunohistochemistry (IHC) (bottom panels) for animal#27. Adenovirus infection was associated with villous atrophy and fusion(i) and sloughed epithelial cells that contained intranuclear adenoviralinclusions (arrows in (ii)). Adenovirus antigen could be localized tovillous tip epithelium by immunohistochemistry (brown color of DABchromagen, Mayer's counterstain; (iii) and (iv)). Scale bars in (i) and(iii) are 0.5 mm. Scale bars in (ii) and (iv) are 200 μm.

FIG. 7A is a diagram showing the neighbor-joining phylogenetic analysisof the predicted full-length non-structural polyprotein of WUHARVCalicivirus 1.

FIG. 7B is a diagram showing the neighbor-joining phylogenetic analysisof the predicted non-structural protein of WUHARV Parvovirus 1.

FIG. 7C is a diagram showing the neighbor-joining phylogenetic analysisof the full genome of WUHARV Enteroviruses 1, 2, and 3, and WUHARVSapeloviruses 1 and 2.

FIG. 8A is a rank abundance plot for SIV− animals constructed using both16S rDNA sequencing from a previous study performed from TNPRC (McKennaet al., PLoS Pathog. 4: e20 (2008)) and our next-generation sequencing(NGS) data from TNPRC (Table 2; FIG. 9C). Samples for 16S rDNAsequencing were obtained over a period of months in 1996, while samplesfor this study were obtained in 2011. Circles indicate 16S rDNAsequencing data from McKenna et al.; squares indicate sequencing datafrom this study.

FIG. 8B is a rank abundance plot for SIV+ animals constructed using both16S rDNA sequencing from a previous study performed from TNPRC (McKennaet al., PLoS Pathog. 4: e20 (2008)) and our next-generation sequencing(NGS) data from TNPRC (Table 2; FIG. 9C). Samples for 16S rDNAsequencing were obtained over a period of months in 1996, while samplesfor this study were obtained in 2011. Circles indicate 16S rDNAsequencing data from McKenna et al.; squares indicate sequencing datafrom this study.

FIG. 8C are graphs showing species accumulation (left panel), Shannon'sdiversity (middle panel), and Pielou's evenness (right panel) forSIV-infected and control monkeys housed at NEPRC for 24 weeks. Thespecies accumulation curve was constructed for SIV-infected (red) anduninfected control (blue) rhesus monkeys by quantifying the averagenumber of bacterial families identified as additional animals were addedto the analysis. The corresponding Shannon's diversity and Pielou'sevenness ranges were calculated for equivalent sample numbers based onthe minimum sample number between SIV+ and SIV− animals. When thisminimum number was less than the maximum number of animals, 100 randomsamples with replacement were used to determine the sample mean.Differences between means were assessed using an unpaired Student'st-test. The nature of SIV infection is as defined in FIGS. 1A-1D.

FIG. 8D are graphs showing species accumulation (left panel), Shannon'sdiversity (middle panel), and Pielou's evenness (right panel) forSIV-infected and control monkeys housed at NEPRC for 64 weeks. Thespecies accumulation curve and corresponding Shannon's diversity andPielou's evenness ranges were calculated as described for FIG. 8C. Thenature of SIV infection is as defined in FIGS. 1A-1D.

FIG. 8E are graphs showing species accumulation (left panel), Shannon'sdiversity (middle panel), and Pielou's evenness (right panel) forSIV-infected and control monkeys housed at TNPRC 23-64 weeks afterintravaginal infection with SIVmac251. The species accumulation curveand corresponding Shannon's diversity and Pielou's evenness ranges werecalculated as described for FIG. 8C. The nature of SIV infection is asdefined in FIGS. 1A-1D.

FIG. 8F are graphs showing species accumulation (left panel), Shannon'sdiversity (middle panel), and Pielou's evenness (right panel) forSIV-infected and control vervet African green monkeys housed at the NIHafter intravenous infection with SIVagm90, SIVagmVer1, or after naturalinfection in the wild. The species accumulation curve and correspondingShannon's diversity and Pielou's evenness ranges were calculated asdescribed for FIG. 8C. The nature of SIV infection is as defined inFIGS. 1A-1D.

FIG. 8G is a graph showing species accumulation for SIV-infected andcontrol sabaeus African green monkeys housed at NEPRC and infectedintravenously with SIVagmMJB or SIVagm9315BR. The species accumulationcurve was calculated as described for FIG. 8C. Based on the lack ofcomparable family richness between SIV-infected and control animals inthis cohort, we do not report diversity or evenness.

FIG. 9A is a heatmap displaying the number of sequences assigned tospecific bacterial families for each individual pathogenic SIV-infectedand control rhesus monkey housed at the NEPRC 24 weeks after SIVinfection. The nature of SIV infection is as defined for FIG. 1A.

FIG. 9B is a heatmap displaying the number of sequences assigned tospecific bacterial families for each individual pathogenic SIV-infectedand control rhesus monkey housed at the NEPRC 64 weeks after SIVinfection. The nature of SIV infection is as defined for FIG. 1B.

FIG. 9C is a heatmap displaying the number of sequences assigned tospecific bacterial families for each individual pathogenic SIV-infectedand control rhesus monkeys housed at the TNPRC. The nature of SIVinfection is as defined for FIG. 1C.

FIG. 9D is a heatmap displaying the number of sequences assigned tospecific bacterial families for each individual nonpathogenicSIV-infected and control vervet African green monkeys housed at the NIH.The nature of SIV infection is as defined for FIG. 1D.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention relates to the discovery that pathogenic SIVinfection is associated with a significant and unexpected expansion ofthe enteric virome, as detected using next generation sequencing (NGS)of RNA plus DNA. We documented a remarkable number of differences in thefecal virome between pathogenically SIV-infected monkeys, uninfectedcontrol monkeys, and monkeys infected with non-pathogenic SIV. Thesefindings included increases in viral sequences, the presence of novelviruses, the association of unsuspected adenovirus infection withintestinal disease and enteric epithelial pathology, and viremia withenteric parvoviruses in advanced AIDS. At least 32 new viruses weredetected from genera that cause diseases in mammalian hosts includingadenoviruses, caliciviruses, parvoviruses, picornaviruses, andpolyomaviruses (see, for example, Table 3 or FIG. 5 for a summary of theidentified viruses). Our assignment of viral sequences to new viruseswas conservative, and thus additional sequencing may detect additionalviruses in the enteric virome in SIV-infected animals.

Application of standard diagnostic approaches, such as PCR or culture,would not have identified the breadth of divergent viruses detectedhere, and therefore would have underestimated both the potential causesof enteritis or systemic viral infection and the diversity of antigenswhich might contribute to enteropathy and immune activation. Ourfindings show that the nature of the enteric virome can be used as aprognostic indicator of HIV progression. The nature of the entericvirome may also contribute to AIDS pathogenenesis by damaging theintestinal epithelium to allow access of microbes, PAMPs, and viralantigens into tissues and the circulation to activate the immune systemand stimulate lentivirus replication.

These data challenge the notion that abnormalities in the intestinaltract in pathogenic SIV-infected primates are due to direct effects ofSIV or indirect effects of SIV on immune responses to enteric bacteria(Sandler et al., J. Infect. Dis. 203: 780-790 (2011)). Instead,immunocompromise during lentivirus infection appears to be associatedwith significant expansion of the enteric virome, which results indamage to the intestine, as shown for adenoviruses in the present study.

Such damage could provide access for bacterial PAMPs, or as shown hereenteric viruses, into tissues and the circulation. It is alreadyrecognized that bacterial and viral contributions to intestinalpathology are not independent of each other. Clear synergies between thevirome, bacteria, and host genes have been documented in murine systems(Bloom et al., Cell Host Microbe 9: 390-403 (2011); Cadwell et al., Cell141: 1135-1145 (2010); Virgin et al., Cell 147: 44-56 (2011)).Importantly, it is not clear how bacterial PAMPs would explain the Tcell activation characteristic of the systemic immune activationassociated with AIDS progression. Our data suggest that T and B cellactivation might be due to immune responses to unexpected viralantigens, as for example the parvovirus we detected in the circulationof a subset of animals. Unsuspected viral infections might alsocontribute to the high levels of IFN-α noted in the circulation ofuntreated AIDS patients. Searching for virus-specific T cell responsesrequires knowledge of the sequence of the viral proteins present,indicating the importance of sequencing the virome to define potentialantigens that might drive immune activation in lentivirus-infectedhosts.

Polynucleotides of the Invention

As a first aspect, the invention provides polynucleotide sequencesrelated to previously undiscovered viruses of the enteric virome. Theisolated polynucleotides may include all or a portion of a nucleotidesequence that is at least 70% identical (e.g., at least 71%, 72%, 73%,or 74% identical), at least 75% identical (e.g., at least 76%, 77%, 78%,or 79% identical), at least 80% identical (e.g., at least 81%, 82%, 83%,or 84% identical), at least 85% identical (e.g., at least 86%, 87%, 88%,or 89% identical), at least 90% identical (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%,or 94% identical), at least 95% identical (e.g., at least 96%, 97%, 98%,or 99% identical), or 100% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1-107, ora reverse complement thereof. In some embodiments, the isolatedpolynucleotides include a label (e.g., a fluorophore, a hapten, anenzyme, or a radioisotope). The isolated polynucleotides of theinvention may include at least 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60,70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 2000,3000, 4000, 5000, 6000, 7000 or more contiguous or non-contiguousnucleotides of a reference polynucleotide molecule. In some embodiments,the polynucleotides of the invention are between 10-100 nucleotides inlength, more particularly between 10-30 nucleotides in length (e.g., 10,11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,29, or 30 nucleotides in length), and can be at least 70% identical(e.g., at least 71%, 72%, 73%, or 74% identical), at least 75% identical(e.g., at least 76%, 77%, 78%, or 79% identical), at least 80% identical(e.g., at least 81%, 82%, 83%, or 84% identical), at least 85% identical(e.g., at least 86%, 87%, 88%, or 89% identical), at least 90% identical(e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, or 94% identical), at least 95% identical(e.g., at least 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical), or 100% identical toany one of SEQ ID NOs: 332-371. SEQ ID NOs: 332-371 (see, for example,Table 1) disclose primers that can be utilized in a PCR assay to screenfor the presence of the viruses.

Polypeptides of the Invention

In another aspect, the invention features isolated polypeptidesincluding all or a portion of an amino acid sequence that is at least70% identical (e.g., at least 71%, 72%, 73%, or 74% identical), at least75% identical (e.g., at least 76%, 77%, 78%, or 79% identical), at least80% identical (e.g., at least 81%, 82%, 83%, or 84% identical), at least85% identical (e.g., at least 86%, 87%, 88%, or 89% identical), at least90% identical (e.g., at least 91%, 92%, 93%, or 94% identical), at least95% identical (e.g., at least 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% identical), or 100%identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 108-331. In some embodiments, theisolated polypeptides include a label (e.g., a fluorophore, a hapten, anenzyme, or a radioisotope). The isolated polypeptides of the inventionmay include at least 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,19, 20, 25, 50, 75, 90, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275, 300, or350 or more contiguous or non-contiguous amino acids of a referencepolypeptide molecule.

Antibodies, Recombinant Expression Systems, and Viruses of the Invention

The invention features isolated antibodies, or fragments thereof, thatare specific for one or more of the isolated polynucleotides orpolypeptides of the invention. The isolated antibodies, or fragmentsthereof, may be chimeric, human, humanized, or synthetic, and mayfurther include a label.

In another aspect, the invention features recombinant expression systemsfor the production of a protein, or fragment thereof, that is encoded bythe polynucleotides of the invention. The recombinant expression systemmay be an in vitro or an in vivo expression system and may furtherinclude a cell. The cell may be a bacterial cell (e.g., an E coli cell),a plant cell, or a mammalian cell (e.g., a Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)cell).

In yet another aspect, the invention features recombinant virusesincluding one or more of the isolated polynucleotides and/or one or moreof the isolated polypeptides of the invention. In one preferredembodiment, the viruses further include a genome including aheterologous nucleic acid encoding an antigenic gene product of interestor fragment thereof, or the viruses further include a capsid including aheterologous antigenic gene product of interest or fragment thereof. Theantigenic gene product, or fragment thereof, may include a bacterial,viral, parasitic, or fungal gene product, or fragment thereof.Non-limiting examples of bacterial gene products, or fragments thereof,include 10.4, 85A, 85B, 86C, CFP-10, Rv3871, and ESAT-6 gene products,or fragments thereof, of Mycobacterium; O, H, and K antigens, orfragments thereof, of E. coli; and protective antigen (PA), or fragmentsthereof, of Bacillus anthracis. Non-limiting examples of viral geneproducts, or fragments thereof, include Gag, Pol, Nef, Tat, Rev, Vif,Vpr, or Vpu, or fragments thereof, of HIV and other retroviruses; 9Dantigen, or fragments thereof, of HSV; Env, or fragments thereof, of allenvelope protein-containing viruses. Non-limiting examples of parasiticgene products, or fragments thereof, include circumsporozoite (CS)protein, gamete surface proteins Pfs230 and Pfs4845, and Liver SpecificAntigens 1 or 3 (LSA-1 or LSA-3), or fragments thereof, of Plasmodiumfalciparum. Non-limiting examples of fungal gene products, or fragmentsthereof, include any cell wall mannoprotein (e.g., Afmp1 of Aspergillusfumigatus) or surface-expressed glycoprotein (e.g., SOWgp ofCoccidioides immitis). In some embodiments, all or a portion of therecombinant virus is from the viral family Adenoviridae, Parvoviridae,Calciviridae, Papillomaviridae, Picobirnaviridae, Picornaviridae, orPolyomaviridae. In preferred embodiments, the viral family isAdenoviridae or Parvoviridae. For example, in some embodiments, all or aportion of the recombinant virus of the invention may be from WUHARVAdenovirus 1 and have all or a portion of a nucleotide sequence that isat least 70% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1-13 and/or express allor a portion of a polypeptide sequence that is at least 70% identical toany one of SEQ ID NOs: 108-163. In some embodiments, the recombinantvirus of the invention may be from WUHARV Adenovirus 2 or 3 and have allor a portion of a nucleotide sequence that is at least 70% identical toany one of SEQ ID NOs: 14-54 and/or express all or a portion of apolypeptide sequence that is at least 70% identical to any one of SEQ IDNOs: 164-256. In some embodiments, the recombinant virus of theinvention may be from WUHARV Adenovirus 4 and have all or a portion of anucleotide sequence that is at least 70% identical to SEQ ID NO: 55 orSEQ ID NO: 56 and/or express all or a portion of a polypeptide sequencethat is at least 70% identical to SEQ ID NO: 257 or SEQ ID NO: 258. Insome embodiments, the recombinant virus of the invention may be fromWUHARV Adenovirus 5 and have all or a portion of a nucleotide sequencethat is at least 70% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 57-69 and/orexpress all or a portion of a polypeptide sequence that is at least 70%identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs: 259-277.

Detection of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) or AIDSProgression

Discovery of the expansion of the enteric virome in nonhuman primatesinfected with pathogenic SIV, but not with non-pathogenic SIV, hasprofound implications for understanding AIDS pathogenesis in theseanimals and suggests a similar expansion of the enteric virome in humanAIDS. Our data are consistent with a model in which immunosuppressionresults in increased levels of enteric viral infection which, in afeed-forward manner, contributes to AIDS via damage to the intestinalmucosa and induction of systemic immune activation that accelerates AIDSprogression. This study shows the pathogenetic potential of the entericvirome, as exemplified by animals with enteritis associated withadenovirus infection or parvovirus viremia. By sequencing both RNA andDNA and by using metagenomic approaches, rather than focusing onbacterial 16S rDNA analysis, we have documented a new set of virusesassociated with clinical AIDS progression in rhesus monkeys. Since theseviruses include many potential pathogens, studies of HIV and SIVpathogenesis should take them into account as possible contributors todisease progression. This provides substantial opportunity to explainand eventually intervene in the processes that lead to AIDS clinicaldisease progression. Our data indicate that the expansion of the entericvirome can be used as a marker for rapidly progressive disease.

Accordingly, the present invention also relates to methods of detectingacquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) and/or AIDS progression in asubject by detecting one or more target nucleotide sequences from asample of the subject that specifically hybridize under stringentconditions to one or more of the polynucleotides of the invention, wherethe detection of an increase in the level of the one or more targetnucleotide sequences in the subject, relative to the level of one ormore target nucleotide sequences from a control subject, indicates AIDSand/or AIDS progression in the subject. Detecting of the one or moretarget nucleotide sequences may include synthesizing cDNA from RNA ofthe sample, and may utilize a PCR assay for detection, such as a realtime PCR (RT-PCR) assay and/or a nested PCR assay. SEQ ID NOs: 332-371(see, for example, Table 1) disclose primers that can be utilized in aPCR assay to screen for the presence of the viruses. The sample may be atissue, organ, liquid, or feces sample from a mammal, preferably aprimate or a human. This method of detecting AIDS and/or AIDSprogression in a subject can be used alone, in conjunction, or inparallel with known method(s) of detecting AIDS and/or AIDS progression,such as by the detection of CD4 T cell levels.

Diagnosis of Immunodeficiency or Enteropathy

The compositions of the invention may be used for other diagnosticpurposes. In some aspects, the invention features methods of diagnosing,or providing a prognostic indicator of, immunodeficiency and/orenteropathy in a subject including detecting one or more targetnucleotide sequences from a sample of the subject that specificallyhybridize under stringent conditions to one or more of thepolynucleotides of the invention, where the detection of an increase inthe level of the one or more target nucleotide sequences in the subject,relative to the level of one or more target nucleotide sequences from acontrol subject, indicates the presence of, or the propensity todevelop, immunodeficiency and/or enteropathy in the subject. Detectingone or more target nucleotide sequences may include synthesizing cDNAfrom RNA of the sample, and may utilize a PCR assay for detection, suchas a real time PCR (RT-PCR) assay and/or a nested PCR assay. SEQ ID NOs:332-371 (see, for example, Table 1) disclose primers that can beutilized in a PCR assay to screen for the presence of the viruses. Thesample may be a tissue, organ, liquid, or feces sample from a mammal,preferably a primate or a human. This method of diagnosing, or providinga prognostic indicator of, immunodeficiency and/or enteropathy in asubject can be used alone, in conjunction, or in parallel with knownmethod(s) of diagnosing, or providing a prognostic indicator of,immunodeficiency and/or enteropathy, such as by the detection of CD4 Tcell levels and/or serum LPS binding protein (LBP) levels.

Treatment of Immunodeficiency or Enteropathy

In other aspects, the compositions of the invention may be used fortherapeutic purposes. For example, the invention features nucleic acid-or polypeptide-based vaccines. The vaccines may include a vector thatincludes the polynucleotides of the invention or a vaccine that includesa polypeptide of the invention. In addition, the invention featuresmethods of identifying a therapeutic agent for use in treatingimmunodeficiency and/or enteropathy in a subject including detecting oneor more target nucleotide sequences that specifically hybridize understringent conditions to one or more of the polynucleotides of theinvention from a sample of a subject administered a therapeuticallyeffective amount of a candidate agent, where the detection of a decreasein the level of the one or more target nucleotide sequences in thesubject, relative to the level of one or more target nucleotidesequences from the subject prior to administration or a control subject,identifies the candidate agent as the therapeutic agent. In someembodiments, the candidate agent is administered to the subject in atherapeutically effective amount. In other embodiments, theimmunodeficiency and/or enteropathy is associated with a lentivirus(e.g., human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or simian immunodeficiencyvirus (SIV)). Detecting one or more target nucleotide sequences mayinclude synthesizing cDNA from RNA of the sample, and may utilize a PCRassay for detection, such as a real time PCR (RT-PCR) assay and/or anested PCR assay. SEQ ID NOs: 332-371 (see, for example, Table 1)disclose primers that can be utilized in a PCR assay to screen for thepresence of the viruses. The sample may be a tissue, organ, liquid, orfeces sample from a mammal, preferably a primate or human.

Administration of a Therapeutic Agent

The vaccines of the invention or the therapeutic agent, once identifiedby the methods of the invention, can be administered to a subject (e.g.,a human), pre- or post-lentiviral (e.g., HIV) infection, to treat,prevent, ameliorate, inhibit the progression of, or reduce the severityof immunocompromise and/or enteropathy. The subject, at the time ofadministration, may present as symptomatic or asymptomatic. In addition,the vaccine or identified therapeutic agent may also treat, prevent,ameliorate, inhibit the progression of, or reduce the severity of one ormore symptoms, if present, of lentiviral (e.g., HIV) infection. Examplesof the symptoms caused by lentiviral infection include one or more of,e.g., fever, muscle aches, coughing, sneezing, runny nose, sore throat,headache, chills, diarrhea, vomiting, rash, weakness, dizziness,bleeding under the skin, in internal organs, or from body orifices likethe mouth, eyes, or ears, shock, nervous system malfunction, delirium,seizures, renal (kidney) failure, personality changes, neck stiffness,dehydration, seizures, lethargy, paralysis of the limbs, confusion, backpain, loss of sensation, impaired bladder and bowel function, andsleepiness that can progress into coma or death. These symptoms, andtheir resolution during treatment, may be measured by, e.g., a physicianduring a physical examination or by other tests and methods known in theart.

The vaccines or therapeutic agents can be formulated for administrationalone or as a pharmaceutical composition by a route selected from, e.g.,intramuscular, intravenous, intradermal, intraarterial, intraperitoneal,intralesional, intracranial, intraarticular, intraprostatical,intrapleural, intratracheal, intranasal, intravitreal, intravaginal,intrarectal, topical, intratumoral, peritoneal, subcutaneous,subconjunctival, intravesicular, mucosal, intrapericardial,intraumbilical, intraocularal, oral, or local administration, or byinhalation, by injection, by infusion, by continuous infusion, bylocalized perfusion bathing target cells directly, by catheter, bylavage, by gavage, in cremes, or in lipid compositions. The preferredmethod of administration can vary depending on various factors (e.g.,the components of the composition being administered and the severity ofthe condition being treated). Formulations suitable for oral or nasaladministration may consist of liquid solutions, such as an effectiveamount of the composition dissolved in a diluent (e.g., water, saline,or PEG-400), capsules, sachets, tablets, or gels, each containing apredetermined amount of the chimeric Ad5 vector composition of theinvention. The pharmaceutical composition may also be an aerosolformulation for inhalation, e.g., to the bronchial passageways. Aerosolformulations may be mixed with pressurized, pharmaceutically acceptablepropellants (e.g., dichlorodifluoromethane, propane, or nitrogen). Inparticular, administration by inhalation can be accomplished by using,e.g., an aerosol containing sorbitan trioleate or oleic acid, forexample, together with trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorofluoromethane,dichlorotetrafluoroethane, or any other biologically compatiblepropellant gas.

Immunogenicity of the vaccine of the invention may be significantlyimproved if it is co-administered with an immunostimulatory agent oradjuvant. Suitable adjuvants well-known to those skilled in the artinclude, e.g., aluminum phosphate, aluminum hydroxide, QS21, Quil A (andderivatives and components thereof), calcium phosphate, calciumhydroxide, zinc hydroxide, glycolipid analogs, octodecyl esters of anamino acid, muramyl dipeptides, polyphosphazene, lipoproteins, ISCOMmatrix, DC-Chol, DDA, cytokines, and other adjuvants and derivativesthereof.

The vaccine or therapeutic agent of the invention, or a pharmaceuticalcomposition including the same, may be formulated to release the vaccineor therapeutic agent immediately upon administration (e.g., targeteddelivery) or at any predetermined time period after administration usingcontrolled or extended release formulations. Administration incontrolled or extended release formulations is useful where the vaccineor agent, either alone or in combination, has (i) a narrow therapeuticindex (e.g., the difference between the plasma concentration leading toharmful side effects or toxic reactions and the plasma concentrationleading to a therapeutic effect is small; generally, the therapeuticindex, TI, is defined as the ratio of median lethal dose (LD₅₀) tomedian effective dose (ED₅₀)); (ii) a narrow absorption window at thesite of release (e.g., the gastro-intestinal tract); or (iii) a shortbiological half-life, so that frequent dosing during a day is requiredin order to sustain a therapeutic level.

Many strategies can be pursued to obtain controlled or extended releasein which the rate of release outweighs the rate of metabolism of thevaccine or therapeutic agent, or the pharmaceutical compositionincluding the same. For example, controlled release can be obtained bythe appropriate selection of formulation parameters and ingredients,including, e.g., appropriate controlled release compositions andcoatings. Suitable formulations are known to those of skill in the art.Examples include single or multiple unit tablet or capsule compositions,oil solutions, suspensions, emulsions, microcapsules, microspheres,nanoparticles, patches, and liposomes.

The vaccine or therapeutic agent may be administered, e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, or 60 minutes, 2, 4,6, 10, 15, or 24 hours, 2, 3, 5, or 7 days, 2, 4, 6 or 8 weeks, or even3, 4, or 6 months pre-exposure, or may be administered to the subject15-30 minutes or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 20, 24, 48, or 72hours, 2, 3, 5, or 7 days, 2, 4, 6 or 8 weeks, 3, 4, 6, or 9 months, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20 years or longer post-exposure to theinfective agent, alone or in a pharmaceutical composition.

When treating disease (e.g., AIDS due to HIV infection), the vaccine ortherapeutic agent may be administered to the subject either before adefinitive diagnosis, before the occurrence of immunodeficiency and/orenteropathy, or after diagnosis or symptoms become evident. For example,the pharmaceutical composition including the vaccine or therapeuticagent may be administered, e.g., immediately after diagnosis or theclinical recognition of symptoms or 2, 4, 6, 10, 15, or 24 hours, 2, 3,5, or 7 days, 2, 4, 6 or 8 weeks, or even 3, 4, or 6 months afterdiagnosis or detection of symptoms.

The vaccines or therapeutic agents may be sterilized by conventionalsterilization techniques, or may be sterile filtered. The resultingaqueous solutions may be packaged for use as is, or lyophilized; thelyophilized preparation may be administered in powder form or combinedwith a sterile aqueous carrier prior to administration. The pH of thepreparations typically will be between 3 and 11, more preferably between5 and 9 or between 6 and 8, and most preferably between 7 and 8, such as7 to 7.5. The resulting compositions in solid form may be packaged inmultiple single dose units, each containing a fixed amount of thevaccine or therapeutic agent, and, if desired, one or moreimmunomodulatory agents, such as in a sealed package of tablets orcapsules, or in a suitable dry powder inhaler (DPI) capable ofadministering one or more doses.

Dosages

The dose of the vaccine or therapeutic agent or the number of treatmentsusing the same may be increased or decreased based on the severity of,occurrence of, or progression of, the level of immunocompromise and/orenteropathy in the subject (e.g., based on the severity of one or moresymptoms of, e.g., viral infection). The dosage administered depends onthe subject to be treated (e.g., the age, body weight, capacity of theimmune system, and general health of the subject being treated), theform of administration (e.g., as a solid or liquid), the manner ofadministration (e.g., by injection, inhalation, dry powder propellant),and the cells targeted (e.g., epithelial cells, such as blood vesselepithelial cells, nasal epithelial cells, or pulmonary epithelialcells).

In addition, single or multiple administrations of the vaccines ortherapeutic agents of the present invention may be given (pre- orpost-infection) to a subject (e.g., one administration or administrationtwo or more times). For example, subjects who are particularlysusceptible to, e.g., viral infection may require multiple treatments toestablish and/or maintain protection against the virus. Levels ofinduced immunity provided by the vaccines or therapeutic agentsdescribed herein can be monitored by, e.g., measuring CD4 T cell levelsand/or serum LPS binding protein (LBP) levels. The dosages may then beadjusted or repeated as necessary to maintain desired therapeutic levelsin the subject having immunocompromise and/or enteropathy associatedwith, e.g., a lentiviral (e.g., HIV) infection.

In some embodiments, a single dose of the vaccine or therapeutic agentmay achieve protection, pre-exposure, from infective agents. Inaddition, a single dose administered post-exposure to a viral or otherinfective agent can function as a treatment according to the presentinvention. Multiple doses (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, or more doses) can also beadministered, in necessary, to these subjects.

Carriers, Excipients, Diluents

The compositions of the invention may include a recombinantreplication-defective Ad5 vector with chimeric hexon and fiber proteins,containing a heterologous nucleic acid molecule encoding an antigenicgene product or fragment thereof. An adenoviral vector of the inventionalso includes one or more of the adenoviruses identified in the presentstudy (e.g., one or more of these adenoviruses may be used as a vectorthat is modified to include a heterologous nucleic acid molecule, which,upon expression in a host, produces a therapeutic immunogenic responsein the host). Therapeutic formulations of the compositions of theinvention are prepared using standard methods known in the art by mixingthe active ingredient having the desired degree of purity with optionalphysiologically acceptable carriers, excipients or stabilizers(Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (20^(th) edition), ed. A. Gennaro,2000, Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, Pa.). Acceptablecarriers, include saline, or buffers such as phosphate, citrate andother organic acids; antioxidants including ascorbic acid; low molecularweight (less than about 10 residues) polypeptides; proteins, such asserum albumin, gelatin or immunoglobulins; hydrophilic polymers such aspolyvinylpyrrolidone, amino acids such as glycine, glutamine,asparagines, arginine or lysine; monosaccharides, disaccharides, andother carbohydrates including glucose, mannose, or dextrins; chelatingagents such as EDTA; sugar alcohols such as mannitol or sorbitol;salt-form ing counterions such as sodium; and/or nonionic surfactantssuch as TWEEN™, PLURONICS™, or PEG.

Optionally, the formulation contains a pharmaceutically acceptable salt,preferably sodium chloride, e.g., at about physiological concentrations.Optionally, the formulations of the invention can contain apharmaceutically acceptable preservative. In some embodiments thepreservative concentration ranges from 0.1 to 2.0%, typically vv.Suitable preservatives include those known in the pharmaceutical arts.Benzyl alcohol, phenol, m-cresol, methylparaben, and propylparaben areexamples of preservatives. Optionally, the formulations of the inventioncan include a pharmaceutically acceptable surfactant at a concentrationof 0.005 to 0.02%.

These and other aspects of the invention are further described in theExamples, below.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are to illustrate the invention. They are notmeant to limit the invention in any way.

Example 1 Materials and Methods

Nucleic Acid Preparation and 454 Sequencing

100 mg or 200 mg of frozen stool was resuspended in 6 volumes of PBS(Finkbeiner et al., PLoS Pathog. 4: e1000011 (2008)), centrifuged topellet particulate matter and the supernatant was then passed through a0.45-μm filter. Total nucleic acid was isolated from 200 μL or 850 μL ofthis filtrate using the Ampliprep DNA extraction machine (Roche)according to manufacturer's instructions. To enable detection of bothRNA and DNA viruses, 9 μL total nucleic acid from each sample wasreverse transcribed and 6 μL of the cDNA reaction amplified aspreviously described (Wang et al., PLoS Biol. 1: E2 (2003)). Briefly,RNA templates were reverse transcribed using a first primer containing a16-nucleotide specific sequence followed by 9 random nucleotides forrandom priming. The 16-nucleotide specific sequence was unique for eachsample and served as a barcode in assigning sequencing sequences to asample. Sequenase (United States Biochemical) was used for second strandcDNA synthesis and for random-primed amplification of DNA templatesusing the first primer. Each sample was subjected to 40 cycles of PCRamplification using a second primer containing the same 16 nucleotidespecific sequence as in the corresponding first primer. Amplificationproducts were quantitated, diluted to 15 ng/μL and then 5 μL of eachsample was pooled, adaptor-ligated and sequenced on the 454 GS-FLXplatform (454 Life Sciences).

Detection and Analysis of Viral Sequences Using Custom BioinformaticPipeline

Sequences were analyzed using VirusHunter as described (Presti et al.,J. Virol. 83: 11599-11606 (2009); Loh et al., J. Virol. 83: 13019-13025(2009); Zhao et al., J. Virol. 85: 10230-10238 (2011); Felix et al.,PLoS Biol. 9: e1000586 (2011); Loh et al., J. Virol. 85: 2642-2656(2011)). Briefly, sequences were assigned to samples based on the uniquebarcode sequences (i.e., the second primer sequences), primer sequenceswere trimmed, and sequences were clustered using CD-HIT (Li et al.,Bioinformatics 22: 1658-1659 (2006)) to remove redundant sequences (95%identity over 95% sequence length). The longest sequence from eachcluster was chosen as the representative unique sequence and enteredinto the analysis pipeline. Then, unique sequences were masked byRepeatMasker (Smit, et al. RepeatMasker Open-3.0). If a sequence did notcontain a stretch of at least 50 consecutive non-“N” nucleotides or ifgreater than 40% of the total length of the sequence was masked, it wasremoved from further analysis (filtered). Filtered high quality uniquenon-repetitive sequences were sequentially compared against (i) thehuman genome using BLASTn; (ii) GenBank nt database using BLASTn; and(iii) GenBank nr database using BLASTX (Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol.215: 403-410 (1990)). Minimal e-value cutoffs of 1e⁻¹⁰ and 1e⁻⁵ wereapplied for BLASTn and BLASTX, respectively (Bench et al., Appl. Envir.Microbiol. 73: 7629-7641 (2007); Wommack et al., Appl. Envir. Microbiol.74: 1453-1463 (2008)). Sequences were phylotyped as human, mouse,fungal, bacterial, phage, viral, or other based on the identity of thetop BLAST hit. Sequences without any significant hit to any of thedatabases were designated as unassigned. If a sequence aligned to both avirus and another kingdom (e.g., bacteria or fungi) with the samee-value it was classified as ambiguous. All eukaryotic viral sequenceswere further classified into viral families based on the taxonomy ID ofthe best hit.

Assembly of Viral Contigs and Virus Comparison Analysis

All viral sequences, unassigned sequences, and the longest five similarsequences for those sequences from each sample were assembled intocontigs using Newbler (454 Life Sciences) with default parameters. If asample was sequenced multiple times, all available sequencing data wereused to optimize contig assembly. The longest contig from amongst allcontigs belonging to a given genus was chosen as the firstrepresentative contig. To compare viruses across multiple animals allsequences (contigs and sequences if no contigs were obtained from asample) were compared with this representative virus contig. If asequence aligned with the representative contig over its full length andshared 98% nucleotide identify or higher over the aligned region it wasconsidered to be the same as the representative contig. For sequencethat was considered as different from the representative contig, thenext longest contig was selected as the second representative virus.This process was repeated until all sequences were classified. If twocontigs or sequences were located at different regions of the genome,and no conclusive decision could be made about their possiblerelatedness, we defaulted in a conservative fashion to assuming thatonly a single virus was present. Representative viral contigs werequeried against the NCBI nt database and the most related viral genomeswere identified. The most closely related virus with full genomesequence available was selected as the reference genome. Foradenoviruses different sequences shared the highest homology withdifferent viruses, indicating that in these large genomes some regionsof the new viruses we detected were most related to different viruses inthe data base. Two out of the three contig sequences used for designingprimers shared highest homology to simian adenovirus 1 strain ATCCVR-195, which was therefore selected as reference genome. If nonucleotide level homology was detected, viral contigs were queried forprotein homology against the NCBI nr database and the most related viralgenome was identified.

Metagenomic Analysis Using MEGAN

Individual sequences obtained by 454 sequencing were analyzed usingBLASTX (version 2.2.22+) on a customized server with ˜1700 availableprocessor slots and a memory range of 2-32 GB per node. Sequences werecompared by BLASTX to the NCBI nr database version Jun. 6, 2011. Resultswith an e-value ≦e⁻¹⁰ were stored and used for taxonomic assignmentusing the Lowest-Common Ancestor (LCA) algorithm in MEGAN v. 4.62.3 (22Nov. 2011). The following LCA parameters were used for taxonomicassignment: Min Support: 5, Min Score: 35, Top percent: 10, Win Score:0, Min Complexity: 0. This process resulted in the generation of samplespecific RMA files used by MEGAN for downstream analysis. These filescontain all of the taxonomic assignment information for each sample.Global metagenome comparisons using all sequences assigned to all taxawere completed for each cohort. These comparisons used MEGAN'snormalization protocol enabling inter-sample comparison. Additionally,sequences contained in specific taxonomic subsets (bacteria, viruses, orphage) were isolated and processed through MEGAN using the sameparameters. Similarly, sequences from specific phage taxa (caudovirales,microviridae, leviviridae and unclassified phage) were extracted andcompared. This procedure permitted independent analysis of these taxawithout artifactual effects of global normalization. Summarized sequencecounts per taxa were exported for subsequent statistical analysis usingGraph Pad Prism version 5.0d.

PCR Detection of Viruses

Primers (Table 1) were designed to amplify regions conserved betweenWUHARV adenoviruses 1-5, caliciviruses 1-2, calicivirus 3, parvoviruses1-2, enteroviruses 1-3, sapeloviruses 1-3, and related viral genomes.Primer sensitivity was evaluated using libraries with high or lownumbers of adenovirus, calicivirus, parvovirus, enterovirus, orsapelovirus sequences, while primer specificity was evaluated usinglibraries with high numbers of unrelated virus sequences, as well asvirus sequences from related genera. Libraries generated from stoolsamples were diluted 10 fold and screened (n=2) for presence of virusesusing: 10×PCR buffer 2.5 ul, MgCl₂ (25 mM) 2.5 ul, dNTP (2 mM) 2.5 ul,forward primer (10 uM) 0.5 ul, reverse primer (10 uM) 0.5 ul, Taq 0.3ul, and H₂O 6.2 ul. PCR products were amplified at: 95° C., 5 min; 95°C., 30 sec, 60° C., 30 sec, 72° C., 1 min, for 32 cycles; 72° C., 10 minand then visualized using EtBr on a 1.5% agarose gel. There wasconcordance in all duplicate tests.

TABLE 1 Primers SEQ WUHARV Primer Targeted ID Virus name regionSequence (5′-3′) NO: Orientation Adenovirus 1 4302c3f HexonGGCAATCATGATGGACACCT 332 F T Adenovirus 1 4302c3r HexonTTAATCACCACCGCAACGC 333 R Adenovirus 1 4302c1f HexonCAATGGAACATTAATCCCAC 334 F G Adenovirus 1 4302c1r HexonCCTGCCAACACTCCCATATT 335 R T Adenovirus 1 4302c18f E1BAGAGCTATCACACAGCGTTC 336 F A Adenovirus 1 4302c18r E1BACCGAGTGGTGGAGGAGAA 337 R Adenovirus 2 4310ac18f pIIIaTAACGTTCAGACCAATCTGG 338 F A Adenovirus 2 4310ac18r pIIIaCGGCAATAGTGCTACTGTTG 339 R G Adenovirus 2 4310ac16f HexonCGGGACAACTTCATTGGACT 340 F Adenovirus 2 4310ac16r HexonGCGCCAATGTTTACAAAGGT 341 R Adenovirus 3 4310bc18f pIIIaTAACGTTCAGACCAATCTGG 342 F A Adenovirus 3 4310bc18r pIIIaCGGCAATAGTGCTACTGTTG 343 R G Adenovirus 3 4310bc21f HexonACGACAGCACCAGTTCAAAA 344 F C Adenovirus 3 4310bc21f HexonTTTTCTGGCAGCGTGATGTT 345 R Adenovirus 3 4310bc28r E3CTCTTGGCAACCCCTTATTG 346 F Adenovirus 3 4310bc28f E3TGGGTGAAACCATTCCTGTT 347 R Adenovirus 4 4312u11r E3 CCGTCCTCTCCTGGTAGAAA348 F Adenovirus 4 4312u11f E3 CGTCGACTGTTGGAGAAACA 349 R Adenovirus 44312u10r DBP GCCGTTACATCCAGATCCTC 350 F Adenovirus 4 4312u10f DBPTACACCGAGGGAATGAAAGC 351 R Adenovirus 4 4312u7r NCR¹ betweenCTTGTGCCTGTGCTTTTCAT 352 F E1a and E1b Adenovirus 4 4312u7f NCR betweenGTGCAAAGAGAACTAGTATG 353 R E1a and E1b G Adenovirus 5 4287u7f IvaGGATGTTCAAGTACATGGGC 354 F A Adenovirus 5 4287u7r IvaGATGCATGACAAGTTCCCCA 355 R A Adenovirus 5 4287c5f E3GAATGGTAGCTGCTTTCTTC 356 F A Adenovirus 5 4287c5r E3TGTTGGGTGATTGTGATGGA 357 R Adenovirus 5 4287c11f Fiber-1CTGAAAAAAACGAATTGGTG 358 F G Adenovirus 5 4287c11r Fiber-1TTGACAACAATGGTGCGTTG 359 R Adenovirus AdV-a pIIIa ACTAACGTKCAGACCAATCT360 F (1-5) GG Adenovirus AdV-b pIIIa GTACAGRCTCACGGACTGC 361 R (1-5)Calicivirus CV-a NS² GTACGAYGTCGGAGGGACC 362 F (1-2) polyproteinCalicivirus CV-b NS GRTCACAAGCCATGACACTC 363 R (1-2) polyprotein AGCalicivirus 3 CV-c NS TTATGTTATGGACAACCCAA 364 F polyprotein AGGCalicivirus 3 CV-d NS GGTCAAGAGACAATAGCTCC 365 R polyprotein ATParvovirus PV-a capsid ACCAGACTAACWCAAGGCG 366 F (1-3) C Parvovirus PV-bcapsid GGTASGTGTTCCATTGTCTT 367 R (1-3) GG Enterovirus EV-a 5′UTR³GCACAACCCCAGTGTAGTTC 368 F (1-3) Enterovirus EV-b 5′UTRCCAATCCAATMGCTATATGA 369 R (1-3) TGAC Sapelovirus SV-a 5′UTRCCAGKMTAAAAGGCAATTGT 370 F (1-3) GG Sapelovirus SV-b 5′UTRCCTGTCAGGTAGCACTAGAC 371 R (1-3) T ¹NCR = non-coding region ²NS =non-structural ³UTR = untranslated regionIsolation and Detection of WUHARV Adenoviruses

Stool samples from rhesus monkeys #30, 40, and 44 were diluted in media,passed through a 0.45-μm filter, and used to inoculate a T-25 flaskcontaining an E1 complementing cell line such as PerC6 or Per55K cellsmaintained as previously described (Abbink et al., J. Virol. 81:4654-4663 (2007)). Upon 100% cell lysis, cells and supernatant wereharvested and frozen at −20° C. Viruses were plaque purified twice.Briefly, MW6 plates were seeded with Per55K cells on day 1. On day 0cells were infected with log dilutions of virus. On day 1 an agaroverlay was performed, plates were incubated until plaques were bigenough to pick, and plaques picked and amplified in a well of a 24 wellplate. Virus stocks were then generated and virions purified. Briefly,virus was amplified to inoculate 24 T-175 triple layer flasks. Cellswere harvested and virus particles purified using CsCl. To detectadenoviruses, primers (Supplementary Table 1) were designed to amplifyregions from WUHARV adenoviruses (1-5) from contigs with a range ofrelatedness to the reference genomes. Crude lysate, plaques and purifiedvirus were screened for presence of adenovirus using: 2 ul DNA, 25 ulPhusion Master Mix with HF buffer, 1.5 ul 100% DMSO, 2 ul forward primer(10 uM), 2 ul reverse primer (10 uM), 17.5 ul H₂O. PCR products wereamplified at: 98° C. 30 sec; 98° C. 10 sec, 50° C. 10 sec, 72° C. 30 secfor 30 cycles; 72° C. 10 min. and then visualized using EtBr on a 0.8%agarose gel.

Assays and Necropsy of SIV-Infected Rhesus Monkeys

Serum levels of LPS binding protein (LBP) were quantitated by ELISA(Antibodies Online). Twelve animals housed at the NEPRC were subjectedto complete necropsy within two hours of death and representativesections of all major organs were collected, fixed in 10% neutralbuffered formalin (NBF), embedded in paraffin, sectioned at 5 μm, andstained using haematoxylin and eosin (HE). Following histopathologicexamination, additional immunohistochemistry was used to analyze thedegree of adenovirus infection within the small and large intestinalsections. The specific adenovirus immunohistochemistry protocol was asfollows: deparaffinization and rehydration followed by a 5′ block in 3%hydrogen peroxide; pre-treatment with proteinase K for 5 minutes; allsteps were followed by a tris-buffered saline (TBS) wash. Prior toapplication of primary antibodies, all slides were treated with both abiotin block and a Dako protein block for 10 minutes each. Sections wereincubated with anti-mouse adenovirus known to cross react with 41 knownserovars of adenovirus (Millipore (Billerica, Mass., USA), monoclonal,1:200) overnight at 4° C. This was followed by 30 minute incubation atroom temperature with Vectastain ABC standard. All slides were developedwith DAB chromagen (Dako) and counterstained with Mayer's haematoxylin.In all cases, step sections were incubated with isotype-specificirrelevant antibodies for negative controls and failed to show staining.Positive controls consisted of sections of small intestine positive foradenovirus.

GenBank Accession Numbers

Sequence data from each animal were uploaded to the MG-RAST server(version 3.12). The sequences of viral contigs presented in FIG. 5 havebeen uploaded to GenBank with the following numbers: WUHARV Calicivirus1 (JX627575), WUHARV Parvovorius 1 (JX627576), WUHARV Enterovirus 1(JX627570), WUHARV Enterovirus 2 (JX627571), WUHARV Enterovirus 3(JX627572), WUHARV Sapelovirus 1 (JX627573), and WUHARV Sapelovirus 2(JX627574).

Statistical Analysis

For analysis of sequence numbers after normalization the data were log₁₀transformed prior to statistical analysis. P-values were derived usingthe nonparametric Mann-Whitney test. P-values <0.05 are consideredsignificant. For analysis of bacterial families in FIG. 9, we utilizedone-way ANOVA with a Bonferroni correction to correct for multiplecomparisons.

Construction of Phylogenetic Trees

We performed phylogenetic analysis for viruses with sufficient sequenceinformation as defined by contig length is >90% of full length of themost closely related viruses shown in FIG. 5. Multiple sequencealignments were performed with ClustalW (Thompson et al. Nucleic AcidsRes. 22: 4673-4680 (1994)). Phylogenetic analysis was performed usingthe neighbor-joining method in the PHYLIP package (Felsenstein,Phylogeny Inference Package, Department of Genome Sciences, Universityof Washington, Seattle (2005)) with 100 bootstrap replicates.Phylogenetic trees were visualized using TreeView (Page, CABIOS. 12:357-358 (1996)).

Caliciviridae Sequences Used for Phylogentic Trees

The predicted amino acid sequences of the full length polyprotein fromWUHARV Calicivirus 1 were used to construct a phylogenetic tree.Polyproteins from following viruses were used: Bovine calicivirus(BoCAA09480.1), Calicivirus pig/F15-10/CAN (CV pig F15-10, ACQ44561.1),Calicivirus pig/AB104/CAN (CV pig AB104, ACQ44563.1), Caliciviruspig/NC-WGP93C/USA/2009 (CV pig NC-WGP93C, ADG27878.1), Caliciviruspig/AB90/CAN (CV pig AB90, YP_002905325.1), NorovirusHu/GII-4/Niigata2/2008/JP (BAJ13866.1), Norovirusdog/GVI.1/HKU_Ca026F/2007/HKG (ACV89839.1), Norovirus genogroup 3(AFQ00092.1), Norovirus Bo/Newbury2/1976/UK (AAD16174.5), Norwalk-likevirus (AAM95184.2), Norwalk virus (NP_056820.1), Tulane Virus(ACB38131.1), and WUHARV Calicivirus 1 (JX627575).

Parvoviridae Sequences Used for Phylogentic Trees

The predicted amino acid sequences of the near full length nonstructural1 protein from WUHARV Parvovirus 1 were used to construct thephylogenetic tree. Polyproteins from following viruses were used:Bufavirus 1 (AFN44273.1), Bufavirus2 (AFN44276.1), Canine parvovirus(CPV_AEK69509, AEK69509.1), Canine parvovirus (CPV_AAV54174,AAV54174.1), Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV_BAA 19018, BAA 19018.1),Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV_AAC37927, AAC37927.1), Kilham rat virus(AAC40695.1), LuIII virus (NP_821154.1), Mink enteritis virus(AEO92090.1), Minute virus of mice (ABB01353.1), Mouse parvovirus 1(NP_042345.1), Mouse parvovirus 2 (YP_656490.1), Parvovirus H1(NP_040318.1), Porcine parvovirus (ADN94624.1), Porcine parvovirus(ADN94588.1), and WUHARV Parvovirus 1 (JX627576).

Picornaviridae Sequences Used for Phylogentic Trees

The full length genome of WUHARV Enterovirus 1, 2, 3, WUHARV Sapelovirus1 and 2 were used to construct the phylogenetic tree. Genome sequencesof following viruses were used: Baboon enterovirus strain A13 (BaboonEVA13, AF326750.2), Duck picornavirus TW90A (AY563023.1), Enterovirus 75strain USA/OK85-10362 (EV 75, AY556070.1), Human echovirus 11, isolateHUN-1108 (HEchoV 11, AJ577589.1), Human enterovirus 71 strainBJ08-Z025-5 (HEV 71, FJ606450.1), Human enterovirus 90 (HEV 90,AB192877.1), Human enterovirus 92 strain RJG7 (HEV 92, EF667344.1),Human coxsackievirus A2 strain CVA2/SD/CHN/09 (HCoxV A2, HQ728259.1),Human coxsackievirus A5 strain CVA5/SD/CHN/09 (HCoxV A5, HQ728261.1),Human coxsackievirus A7 strain Parker (HCox A7, AY421765.1), Porcineenterovirus 8 strain V13 (PSV-1, Porcine sapelovirus 1, AF406813.1),Porcine sapelovirus strain csh (PSV_csh, HQ875059.1), Simian enterovirus46 strain RNM5 (SimianEV 46, EF667343.1), Simian enterovirus SV19 strainM19s (SV19, AF326754.2), Simian enterovirus SV43 strain OM112t (SV43,AF326761.2), Simian sapelovirus 1 strain 2383 (SimianSV-1, AY064708.1),WUHARV Enterovirus 1 (JX627570), WUHARV Enterovirus 2 (JX627571), WUHARVEnterovirus 3 (JX627572), WUHARV Sapelovirus 1 (JX627573), and WUHARVSapelovirus 2 (JX627574).

Example 2 Next Generation Sequencing Analysis Reveals Expansion of theEnteric Virome During Pathogenic SIV Infection

Defining the Enteric Virome

To define the effects of pathogenic and non-pathogenic SIV infection onthe enteric virome, we shotgun sequenced libraries of fecal RNA+DNA fromfour independent cohorts of monkeys, each comprising SIV-infected anduninfected control animals. Two cohorts of pathogenically SIV-infectedand uninfected control rhesus monkeys were housed at the New EnglandPrimate Research Center (NEPRC) or the Tulane National Primate ResearchCenter (TNPRC) (Table 2). As expected, the set point of SIV in the serumcorrelated with rapid progression to AIDS and death. The NEPRC cohortwas sampled at both 24 and 64 weeks after SIV infection. Two cohorts ofnon-pathogenically SIV-infected and uninfected control African greenmonkeys were housed at the National Institutes of Health (NIH, vervetmonkeys) or the NEPRC (sabaeus monkeys) (Table 2).

Total RNA+DNA from fecal material were sequenced using 454 technology toleverage the resulting long sequences for robust assessment of taxonomyand assembly of viral genomes (Table 2). There was no statisticalcorrelation between SIV infection status and either the number of totalor unique sequences (viral plus other) obtained within any of the fourcohorts. For each cohort, sequences were analyzed by two differentcomputational approaches. In the first method, the taxonomic structureof the sequences was analyzed using MEGAN version 4.62.3 (build Nov. 22,2011 (Huson et al., Genome. Res. 17: 377-386 (2007); Huson et al., BMCBioinformatics 10(Suppl 1): S12 (2009))). Each sequence was compared tothe non-redundant (nr) database using BLASTX and results mapped to theNCBI Taxonomy Database. Sequences assigned to bacterial families orclasses were extracted and used for subsequent analysis. The secondcomputational approach was a custom pipeline called VirusHunterdeveloped to identify novel viruses via analysis of both nucleic acidand protein similarity (Presti et al., J. Virol. 83: 11599-11606 (2009);Loh et al., J. Virol. 83: 13019-13025 (2009); Zhao et al., J. Virol. 85:10230-10238 (2011); Felix et al., PLoS Biol. 9: e1000586 (2011); Loh etal., J. Virol. 85: 2642-2656 (2011)).

TABLE 2 Cohorts and sequences analyzed Total Unique sequences sequencesUnique Animal Type of (average (average Sequences sequences cohortmonkey Animal numbers length) length) per sample per sample NEPRC¹Rhesus 22 22 899,947 356,521 4,689- 594- (24 wpi²) Control SIV+ (358 bp)(357 bp) 51,870 26,838 NEPRC Rhesus 22 12 705,429 263,430 6,132- 1,080-(64 wpi) Control SIV+ (341 bp) (345 bp) 59,847 33,982 TNPRC³ Rhesus 2913 1,409,046 557,518 9,188- 3,666- Control SIV+ (296 bp) (294 bp) 89,97433,613 NIH⁴ African 19 19 1,382,171 425,524 3,259- 1,382- green ControlSIV+ (300 bp) (301 bp) 127,567 33,464 NEPRC African 6 10 612,612 187,8078,287- 2,118- green Control SIV+ (293 bp) (279 bp) 194,880 55,158 ¹NewEngland Primate Research Center ²wpi = weeks post-infection with SIV³Tulane National Primate Research Center ⁴National Institutes of HealthEnteric Virome of Rhesus Monkeys Housed at the NEPRC

We first analyzed the enteric virome of 44 rhesus monkeys housed at theNEPRC comprised of 22 monkeys infected intrarectally with pathogenicSIVmac251 and 22 SIV-uninfected monkeys (herein termed controls) (FIGS.1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B). Per standard husbandry procedures, SIV-infected andcontrol rhesus monkeys were fed the same diet but housed separately.Analysis of this cohort confirmed SIV viremia in infected animals andrevealed the expected decreases in CD4 T cell counts and increases inserum LBP levels consistent with intestinal leakage and consequentsystemic immune activation at both 24 and 64 weeks after infection(FIGS. 3A-3C). We collected fecal specimens either at 24 (FIGS. 1A and2A) or 64 weeks (FIGS. 1B and 2B) after SIV infection. Between these twocollection times 10 SIV-infected rhesus monkeys were euthanized forprogressive AIDS. As expected, the set point level of SIV in the serumof rhesus monkeys correlated with rapid progression to AIDS and death.No control animals died.

SIV infection was associated with a greater than 10-fold increase in thenumber of sequences from viruses (p<0.0001) and a decrease in sequencesfrom bacteria (p=0.003) at 24 weeks post-infection (FIGS. 1A and 2A). Atthis time after SIV infection, there were no statistically significantSIV-associated changes in the total number of sequences from phages,alveolata (representing protists), viridiplantae (representing foodsequences from plants), or other kingdoms and phyla (FIGS. 1A and 2A).Samples collected 40 weeks later (64 weeks after SIV infection) revealedincreases in viral sequences in most of the surviving animals thatshowed low numbers of viral sequences 24 weeks after SIV infection(e.g., compare animals 23, 31, and 33 between FIGS. 1A and 1B).Differences between SIV-infected and control monkeys, similar to thoseobserved at 24 weeks after SIV infection, were observed for both viral(p<0.0001) and bacterial (p=0.035) sequences at 64 weeks after infection(FIGS. 1B and 2B). By 64 weeks after SIV infection, the survivingSIV-infected monkeys showed significant decreases in the number of phage(p=0.0320), alveolata (p=0.0183), and viridiplantae (p=0.0013) sequencescompared to controls (FIG. 2B). These data suggest that pathogenic SIVinfection is associated with significant expansion in the entericvirome.

Enteric Virome of Rhesus Monkeys Housed at the TNPRC

To confirm our findings in pathogenically SIV-infected rhesus monkeyshoused at the NEPRC, we analyzed an independent cohort of 13 rhesusmonkeys infected intravaginally with SIVmac251 and 29 control rhesusmonkeys housed at the TNPRC (Table 2; FIGS. 1C and 2C). SIV infection atthe TNPRC was associated with a significant increase in viral sequences(p=0.0420) and decrease in bacterial sequences (0.0019). In the TNPRCcohort, the SIV-infected monkeys showed significant increases in thenumber of phage (p=0.0133) sequences (FIGS. 1C and 2C). Similar to the24 week time point in the NEPRC cohort there were no significant changesin sequences from phage, alveolata, viridiplantae, or sequences fromother kingdoms and phyla (FIGS. 1C and 2C). These results confirm thatan expansion of the enteric virome is associated with pathogenic SIVinfection in two independent cohorts of rhesus monkeys.

Enteric Virome of African Green Monkeys

We next assessed whether the pathogenic SIV infection-associated changesin the enteric virome observed in rhesus monkeys (FIGS. 1A-1C and 2A-2C)were also seen during non-pathogenic SIV infection in African greenmonkeys (Table 2; FIGS. 1D-1E and 2D-2E). The vervet African greenmonkey cohort housed at the NIH (FIGS. 1D and 2D) was comprised of sixmonkeys infected intravenously with SIVagm90, two monkeys infectedintravenously with SIVagmVer1, 11 monkeys naturally infected with SIV,and 19 uninfected control animals. The cohort of sabaeus African greenmonkeys housed at the NEPRC (Table 2; FIGS. 1E and 2E) was comprised oftwo monkeys infected intravenously with SIVagmMJ8, 8 monkeys infectedintravenously with SIVagm9315BR and 6 uninfected control animals.Analysis of these two sets of sequences revealed an increase in phagesequences in the NIH cohort (p=0.0331) that was not observed in theNEPRC cohort, but no other significant SIV infection-associated changeswere observed in either cohort including for the virome (FIGS. 1D-1E and2D-2E). These data indicate that the expansion of the enteric viromeobserved during pathogenic SIV infection is not observed duringnon-pathogenic SIV infection. Importantly, these African green monkeyshad been infected with non-pathogenic SIV for a prolonged period (aminimum of 3 years for the NIH cohort, and from 27 weeks (2 animals) to2.6 years (8 animals) for the NEPRC cohort). Therefore, the lack of anincrease in viral sequences in these SIV-infected animals is notattributable them being infected for a shorter time than thepathogenically SIV-infected rhesus monkeys analyzed above.

Example 3 Viruses Present in SIV-Infected Rhesus and African GreenMonkeys

We next defined the nature of the viral sequences that we detected inSIV-infected and uninfected monkeys using VirusHunter software (Prestiet al., J. Virol. 83: 11599-11606 (2009); Loh et al., J. Virol. 83:13019-13025 (2009); Zhao et al., J. Virol. 85: 10230-10238 (2011); Felixet al., PLoS Biol. 9: e1000586 (2011); Loh et al., J. Virol. 85:2642-2656 (2011)). When a nucleotide sequence did not have significantsimilarity to the genome of an already sequenced virus, we analyzed thepredicted translation products and selected the most closely relatedvirus in the database for comparison. This analysis allowed us todetermine which types of viruses were detected in individual animals ineach cohort (FIGS. 4A-4E). Using conservative criteria we detected atleast 32 distinct and previously undescribed viruses in the sequencesgenerated from individual rhesus monkeys housed at the NEPRC alone(FIGS. 4A and 4B). Certain viruses were found in multiple differentanimals, indicating shared exposure to enteric viruses. We did not countcircoviruses in this estimate due to their ubiquity and diversity.Importantly, we found no significant differences in known insect(Dicistroviridae, Iflaviridae) or plant viruses, which are presumablyderived from the diet, comparing SIV-infected animals and controlanimals in any cohort (FIGS. 4A-4E). The lack of differences in virusesfrom insects and plants between SIV-infected and SIV uninfected monkeysprovides an important internal control indicating that the process oflibrary construction and analysis does not artificially expand thenumber of mammalian viral sequences in samples from SIV-infected rhesusmonkeys.

Newly identified viruses included five adenoviruses, threecaliciviruses, one papillomavirus, seven members of the Parvoviridae (2parvovirus/amdoviruses, five dependoviruses, and one bocavirus), sevenpicobirnaviruses, and seven members of the Picornavirales (threeenteroviruses, 3 sapeloviruses, and one picornavirus), and onepolyomavirus (FIGS. 4A and 4B; Table 3). Importantly, many SIV-infectedrhesus monkeys at both the NEPRC and the TNPRC were shedding multiplepotentially pathogenic viruses (FIGS. 4A-4C). The presence of multiplenovel viruses, and of individual animals infected with multiple distinctviruses, was not regularly observed in control rhesus monkeys housed atthe same locations. In striking contrast, cohorts of African greenmonkeys housed at either the NEPRC or the NIH were relatively free ofvirus infection whether SIV-infected or not (FIGS. 4D and 4E).

As previously observed by others using classical virologic methods (Wanget al., J. Med. Primatol. 36: 101-107 (2007); Oberste et al., J. Gen.Virol. 88: 3360-3372 (2007); Oberste et al., J. Virol. 76: 1244-1251(2002); Sasseville et al., J. Immunotoxicol. 7: 79-92 (2010); Bailey etal., Vet. Pathol. 47: 462-481 (2010)), picornaviruses were detected inboth control and SIV-infected rhesus monkeys (FIG. 4; Table 3). Thisallowed us to compare the number of sequences detected from pathogenicSIV-infected rhesus monkeys versus control animals (FIG. 4F). In monkeyshoused at either the NEPRC or the TNPRC there were significant increasesin the number of sequences derived from picornaviruses in SIV-infectedanimals compared to controls (p=0.0002 and 0.0004 for the NEPRC rhesusanimals at 24 or 64 weeks of infection, p=0.0247 for the TNPRC rhesusanimals). No relationship was detected between picornavirus sequencesand SIV with non-pathogenic SIV infection of African green monkeys.These data are consistent with a failure to control picornavirusinfection in association with pathogenic SIV infection.

TABLE 3 Summary of viruses identified in Rhesus macaques at the NEPRCPercent Name of identity Animal(s) in which most closely nt or aa³viruses were detected⁴ Virus related (length, nt 24 weeks 64 weeks Virusfamily name¹ virus² or aa) SIV− SIV+ SIV− SIV+ Adenoviridae WUHARVSimian 79-99% nt —    40 ⁵* — 23 Adenovirus 1 adenovirus 1 ATCC VR-195WUHARV Human 36-100% nt —  44* — — Adenovirus 2 adenovirus G WUHARVHuman 36-100% nt —  44* — — Adenovirus 3 adenovirus G WUHARV Human87-93% nt — 30 — — Adenovirus 4 adenovirus G WUHARV Human 48-100% nt — —— 27 Adenovirus 5 adenovirus G Caliciviridae WUHARV Tulane virus 75% nt— 25, 26, — 23, 25 Calicivirus 1 (4839/6489) 31, 33, 34*, 35*, 37, 38,39*, 40*, 41, 44* WUHARV Tulane virus 88-93% nt — 37 — 30, 37,Calicivirus 2 (4463/5082, 41 753/812) WUHARV Rhesus 0-81% nt — 23, 28*,— — Calicivirus 3 macaque (50/64, 32, 39* recovirus 2881413, strain216/268) FT437 Papillomaviridae WUHARV Human 69% nt 15 25 — 32Papillomavirus 1 papillomavirus (300/432) Parvoviridae WUHARV Human 73%nt — — — 29 Bocavirus 1 bocavirus (118/160) isolate KU3 WUHARV Adeno-93% nt —  40* — 29 Dependovirus 1 associated (3812/4090) virus 11 WUHARVAdeno- 92% nt — 23, 30, — 27, 29 Dependovirus 2 associated (3680/4020)31, 32, virus 10 34*, 38, 39*, 40*, 44* WUHARV Adeno- 94% nt —  40* — —Dependovirus 3 associated (1680/1793) virus isolate rh.31 WUHARV Adeno-86% nt — 37, 40* — — Dependovirus 4 associated (988/1145) virus isolaterh.8R WUHARV Adeno- 86% nt — 26 — — Dependovirus 5 associated (264/307)virus 7 WUHARV Bufavirus 2 77% nt  7 24*, 31, — 25, 37 Parvovirus 1(1626/2111) 33, 38, 39* WUHARV Bufavirus 2 75-79% nt —  35* — 27Parvovirus 2 (522/698, 139/175) Picobirnaviridae WUHARV Human 26% aa —26, 36* — — Picobirnavirus 1 picobirnavirus (147/574) WUHARV Otarine 29%aa 14, 11 — — — Picobirnavirus 2 picobirnavirus (119/415) WUHARV Human29% aa 8, 15 — — — Picobirnavirus 3 picobirnavirus (102/354) WUHARVHuman 36% aa — 27 — — Picobirnavirus 4 picobirnavirus (94/260) WUHARVHuman 34% aa 22 37 — — Picobirnavirus 5 picobirnavirus (63/187) WUHARVHuman 37% aa —  36* — — Picobirnavirus 6 picobirnavirus (55/149) WUHARVHuman 33% aa — 27 — — Picobirnavirus 7 picobirnavirus (101/302)Picornaviridae WUHARV Human 86% nt — 41, 44* — — Enterovirus 1enterovirus 92 (6228/7268) strain RJG7 WUHARV Simian 83% nt — 23, 25, —25, 29, Enterovirus 2 enterovirus (5879/7100) 26, 27, 30, 32, SV19strain 29, 31, 33, 38, M19s 35*, 38, 41 39* WUHARV Simian 84% nt — — —25, 26, Enterovirus 3 enterovirus (5854/6961) 27, 29, SV19 strain 30,33, M19s 37, 41 WUHARV Simian 85% nt — 26 — — Picornavirus 1picornavirus 6 (284/335) WUHARV Simian 81% nt 19 25, 26, 1, 11, 23, 25,Sapelovirus 1 sapelovirus 1 (6558/8087) 29, 30, 17, 19, 26, 30, 31, 32,22 31, 32, 34*, 35*, 33, 37, 38, 39*, 38 42*, 43* WUHARV Simian 81% nt —25, 28*, — 29, 41 Sapelovirus 2 sapelovirus 1 (6510/8076) 35*, 37, 41WUHARV Simian 79% nt — 23, 37, — 27 Sapelovirus 3 sapelovirus 1(5476/6919) 40* Polyomaviridae WUHARV Polyomavirus 76% nt — — — 29Polyomavirus 1 HPyV6 isolate (242/318) 601a ¹Viruses with 98% ntidentity over the full length of aligned regions are the “same” virus.²Most closely related viruses were identified as the top hit using aNCBI web-based BLAST search against the NCBI nr database on Aug. 31,2012. ³Percent aa identity is reported for viruses for which no knownvirus had nt identity. ⁴As determined by 454 sequencing. ⁵Underlinednumbers indicate animals from which virus contigs were assembled.*Euthanized for progressive AIDS 24 to 64 weeks after SIV infectionGenomic Analysis of Viruses in Rhesus Monkeys at the NEPRC

We next analyzed the viruses present in the NEPRC cohort by assemblingvirus sequences from individual animals into contigs which could then becompared to the most closely related virus present in the database (see,e.g., FIGS. 5A-5D, 6A, and Table 3). Here, these viruses will be namedusing the convention “WUHARV-virus name-number.” Even within a singleanimal we found contigs from distinct but related viruses, indicatingthat some animals were shedding more than one virus of the same genus(FIGS. 4, 5, and Table 3).

We detected at least four adenoviruses (WUHARV Adenovirus 1-4) in theNEPRC cohort (FIG. 6A depicts WUHARV Adenovirus 1). We assembledportions of three calicivirus (WUHARV Caliciviruses 1-3) genomes (FIG.5A). Importantly, WUHARV Caliciviruses 1 and 2 were most closely relatedto, but distinct from, the known primate calicivirus virus Tulane(Farkas et al., J. Virol. 82: 5408-5416 (2008); Farkas et al., J. Gen.Virol. 91: 734-738 (2010); Wei et al., J. Virol. 82: 11429-11436 (2008);Farkas et al., J. Virol. 84: 8617-8625 (2010)). For example, WUHARVCalicivirus 1 shared only 75% nucleotide identity over the 6,489-bpcontig we assembled with Tulane calicivirus and was phylogeneticallydistinct from Tulane (FIG. 7A). WUHARV Calicivirus 3 was quite distantlyrelated to either Tulane virus or to WUHARV Caliciviruses 1 and 2 (FIG.5A). We detected parvoviruses most closely related to Bufavirus 2, arecently described parvovirus (Phan et al., J. Virol. [Epub ahead ofprint] (2012)) (FIGS. 5B and 7B). We assembled viral contigs coveringmost of the 7,000-8,000-bp genomes of several enteroviruses orsapeloviruses, both within the Picornaviridae (FIGS. 5C, 5D, and 7C).WUHARV Enteroviruses 1-3 share nucleotide similarity most closely withsimian enterovirus SV19 with 73-84% nucleotide identity over a largeportion of the genome. WUHARV Sapeloviruses 1-3 are most closely relatedto simian sapelovirus 1 strain 2383, sharing 79 to 81% nucleotideidentity over essentially the entire genome. These data confirm that aremarkably wide variety of viruses are included within the expansion ofthe enteric virome associated with pathogenic SIV infection.

Next Generation Sequencing-Independent Confirmation of Virome Findings

We considered the possibility that relying on next generation sequencing(NGS) to document expansion of the enteric virome associated withpathogenic SIV infection might lead to false conclusions. For example,perhaps all detected viruses were present in multiple monkeys but thesequencing process is somehow biased by pathogenic SIV infection. Toaddress this, we designed PCR assays to detect viruses for which we hadlarge portions of the genome (FIG. 5E, Table 1) and used independentassays to detect viruses (FIG. 5E). PCR is a standard and sensitivediagnostic approach to detection of viruses in biological samples. Insome cases the contigs were so divergent from each other that separatePCR assays had to be designed for different viruses in the same group.For example, one PCR assay was developed to detect WUHARV Caliciviruses1 and 2 while a different assay was developed to detect WUHARVCalicivirus 3, which is highly divergent from all know caliciviruses.Overall PCR analysis correlated well with 454 detected viruses. PCR waspositive for 454-detected viruses in 62/69 (90%) cases (FIG. 5E), withsome of the failures potentially related to the presence of viruses thatwere divergent from the viruses used to design PCR primers. Consistentwith this, PCR detected viruses in samples when as few as 1-2 viralsequences were detected in 454-derived datasets.

Compared to NGS, PCR detected 5/7 adenoviruses (failing to detectdivergent adenoviruses in animals #34 and #39), 14/16 caliciviruses(failing to detect divergent caliciviruses in animals #23 and #24),10/11 parvovirus genus members (parvoviridae, failing to detect adivergent parvovirus in animal #7), 11/12 enterovirus genus members(picornaviridae, failing to detect a divergent enterovirus in animal#34) and 22/23 sapelovirus genus members (picornaviridae, failing todetect a non-divergent virus in animal #19 representing a true falsenegative). Importantly, PCR was negative for virus infection in a totalof 151/151 cases for adenoviruses, caliciviruses, parvoviruses,enteroviruses, and sapeloviruses when next generation sequencingfollowed by bioinformatic analysis did not reveal a viral sequence.

To further confirm NGS results, we cultured viruses from fecal samples.NGS data revealed (FIGS. 4A, 6A, and Table 3) that multiple animals atNEPRC were potentially infected by novel adenoviruses. We thereforeselected fecal samples from four animals for potential isolation ofadenoviruses. Within the NEPRC cohort we selected feces from animals #40(60 adenovirus sequences), #44 (138 adenovirus sequences), and #30 (2adenovirus sequences), as well as a fourth rhesus monkey not in thiscohort (57 adenovirus sequences of 5,758 unique reads) and sought toisolate viruses from them. We cultured five adenoviruses from these fouranimals (WUHARV Ad#1-5). These viruses were sequentially plaque purifiedand then isolated on cesium chloride gradients. The identity of thesepurified viruses as the adenoviruses detected in 454 sequencing wasconfirmed by PCR and sequencing (WUHARV Ad1, shown in FIG. 6A). Togetherboth PCR and culture analyses confirmed the presence of viruses detectedby NGS in fecal samples from pathogenic SIV-infected animals.

Example 4 Novel Viruses Detected by Next Generation Sequencing areAssociated with AIDS Enteropathy

We next considered the possibility that detection of viral sequences infeces would predict intestinal disease in SIV-infected rhesus monkeys.This is a key question because our other data demonstrate only thatviruses are shed in feces. To determine if viruses detected bysequencing can be clinically significant we evaluated the small andlarge intestine of 12 SIV-infected rhesus monkeys housed at the NEPRC(FIG. 1B, results summarized in Table 4). Of the 12 animals necropsied,six had intestinal pathology characteristic of infection withcytomegalovirus or Balantidium (Table 4). Importantly, analysis of thefecal virome of these 12 animals revealed that three animals (#23, 27,and 41) had high levels of adenovirus sequences prior to necropsy (Table4). These three rhesus macaques, but not others in this necropsy cohort,exhibited adenovirus-associated enteritis by histologic examination(FIGS. 6C and 6D, (i) and (ii)). Of these three monkeys withenteropathy, all had lesions in the jejunum and ileum (ileitis) whileone also had lesions in the cecum (colitis). Immunohistochemistry foradenovirus confirmed the diagnosis of adenovirus ileitis and colitis(FIGS. 6C and 6D, (iii) and (iv)). Together these data demonstrate thatviruses detected in the fecal material from SIV-infected rhesus monkeysusing next generation sequencing can cause intestinal disease andepithelial damage in SIV-infected macaques.

To further investigate the clinical relevance of viruses detected byNGS, we used virus specific PCR assays (Table 1) to determine whetherviruses detected in the fecal material of SIV-infected rhesus monkeys(FIGS. 4A and 5E) were present in serum. We detected parvovirus (FIG.5E) in 4/10 serum samples taken at the time animals were euthanized foradvanced AIDS between 24 and 64 weeks post-infection. Sequence analysisof PCR amplicons demonstrated that ¾ viruses present in fecal material(animals #24, #28, and #39) were also present in serum. This suggeststhat viruses detected in the fecal material of SIV-infected rhesusmonkeys can invade tissues and enter the circulation, further supportingthe conclusion that SIV-associated expansion of the enteric virus maycontribute to disease.

TABLE 3 Summary of adenovirus detection and pathology in SIV-infectedrhesus monkeys SI LI Animal Adenovirus WUHARV PCR Adenovirus AdenovirusAdenovirus Other GI number reads^(a) Adenovirus^(a) screen^(a,b)Enteritis^(c) IHC^(c) IHC^(c) Pathologies^(c) 23 889 1, others^(d) PosYes Pos Neg Cytomegalovirus enteritis 25 0 n/a Neg No Neg Neg No 26 0n/a Neg No Neg Neg No 27 653 5, others^(d) Pos Yes Pos Neg Balantidiumsp. typhlitis 29 14 others^(d) Neg No Neg Neg No 30 1 others^(d) Neg NoNeg Neg No 31 0 n/a Neg No Neg Neg Mycobacterium avium enteritis;Balantidium sp. colitis 32 52 others^(d) Neg No Neg Neg No 33 4others^(d) Neg No Neg Neg No 37 0 n/a Neg No Neg Neg No 38 0 n/a Neg NoNeg Neg Balantidium sp colitis 41 640 others^(d) Pos Yes Pos PosBalantidium sp. typhlocolitis ^(a)Number of adenovirus sequencesdetected at 64 weeks. ^(b)Results from PCR for indicated adenovirus(primers, Supplemental Table 1). ^(c)Results obtained at necropsy.^(d)Novel adenoviruses highly diverged from Adenovirus 1-5 as well knownadenoviruses.

Example 5 SIV Infection and the Bacterial Microbiome

We next assessed the effects of SIV infection on the taxonomy of thebacterial microbiome. Our metagenomic data was comparable to published16S rDNA-derived class-level data from SIV-infected and control macaquesat TNPRC (McKenna et al., PLoS. 4: e20 (2008)), indicating that thesedistinct methods yield overall similar results (FIGS. 8A and 8B).Rarefaction analysis revealed that all but a few samples with very highnumbers of viral sequences were robust for analysis of bacterialdiversity at the family level (FIGS. 8C-8F). Species accumulation curvesindicated that all cohorts except the NEPRC African green monkey cohortwere robust for this analysis; further analysis excluded this cohort(FIG. 8G). We detected no consistent SIV-associated differences inbacterial family richness, evenness, or diversity (Legendre andLegendre. Numerical Ecology, Second English Edition. Amsterdam: ElsevierScience (1998)). There was a statistically significant difference inShannon Diversity in the NEPRC cohort sampled 64 weeks post-infectionbetween SIV infected and uninfected control monkeys (p=0.0345), but thiswas not replicated in either other cohort of monkey infected withpathogenic SIV (NEPRC cohort at 24 weeks of infection, TNPRC cohort,FIG. 8C). There were no significant differences between SIV-infected anduninfected monkeys in any cohort amongst the most-represented 20bacterial families (FIGS. 9A-9D). There was no significant difference inbacterial family evenness across cohorts (FIG. 8C-8F). Additionalanalysis using principal component analysis and both supervised andunsupervised random forest analysis (Yatsuneko et al., Nature. 486:222-227 (2012)) showed no association between SIV infection and thebacterial microbiome. Further we failed to find an association betweenSIV infection and either the genus- or species-level taxonomic structureof the bacterial microbiome. Thus, in contrast to our analysis of thevirome, we detected no consistent SIV-infection associated differencesin the family-level taxonomy of the bacterial microbiome.

Other Embodiments

While the invention has been described in connection with specificembodiments thereof, it will be understood that it is capable of furthermodifications and this application is intended to cover any variations,uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, theprinciples of the invention and including such departures from thepresent disclosure that come within known or customary practice withinthe art to which the invention pertains and may be applied to theessential features hereinbefore set forth.

All publications and patent applications mentioned in this specificationare herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if eachindependent publication or patent application was specifically andindividually indicated as being incorporated by reference in theirentirety.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of detecting acquired immune deficiencysyndrome (AIDS) and/or AIDS progression in a subject infected with HIVor SIV, said method comprising: a) synthesizing cDNA from RNA comprisinga biological sample obtained from a subject; b) synthesizing cDNA fromRNA comprising a control sample; c) detecting in each sample thequantity of WUHARV Adenovirus 1 by a PCR assay using primer pairsselected from the group consisting of GGCAATCATGATGGACACCTT(SEQ ID:332)and TTAATCACCACCGCAACGC (SEQ ID NO:3:33), CAATGGAACATTAATCCCACG (SEQID NO: 334) and CCTGCCAACACTCCCATATTT (SEQ ID NO: 335), andAGAGCTATCACACAGCGTTCA (SEQ ID NO: 366) ACCGAGTGGTGGAGGAGAA (SEQ ID NO:337), wherein the PCR assay is selected from the group consisting of areal time PCR assay and a nested PCR assay; d) determining the magnitudeof difference between the quantity of WUHARV Adenovirus 1 in saidbiological sample relative to the quantity of WUHARV Adenovirus 1 insaid control sample; and e) detecting CD4 T cell levels in the subjectand in a control, wherein a statistically significant increase in thequantity of WUHARV Adenovirus 1, and a decrease in CD4 T cell levels insaid subject, relative to the control, indicates AIDS and/or AIDSprogression in said subject.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein saidsample is a tissue, organ, liquid, or feces sample.
 3. The method ofclaim 2, wherein said subject is a mammal.
 4. The method of claim 3,wherein said mammal is a primate.
 5. The method of claim 4, wherein saidprimate is a human.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein said sample is afeces sample.
 7. The method of claim 1, further comprising detectingserum LBP binding protein (LBP) levels in the subject and in a control,wherein an increase in LBP levels in the subject relative to the controlindicates AIDS progression.